ULUSLARARASI POLİTİKA - Deneme Sınavı - 16

Fall of USSR signified the standardization of ideologies and value sets all over the world, which was Western type of democracy, human rights, and liberalism.

Weakening belief of national developmental state drove alternative mechanism forward, just like MNCs, international non-governmental organizations (NGO), civil society, etc. These developments led to a new concept: governance and global governance

Global problems need global solutions and that situation causes states to evolve into post-Westphalian style of politics.

Globalization is a dynamic situation, which changes from time to time and from place to place.

The Age of Discovery led to a world in which foreign trade and colonialism became main dynamics. ...The European cities happened to be increasingly populated. ... A new social class, bourgeoisie, has arisen; as a powerful opponent and challenger of the aristocracy of the dynasties itself

French Revolution has made a great impact over world politics. Not only demolishing the Ancien Régime, but also the French Revolution has shaped the forthcoming centuries even decades by replacing value sets of politics, economics and culture.

Globalization is used to describe transformations proliferating all kinds of communication among people living in many different regions of the world. In terms of its phases, globalization, with its central nodes and dynamics, can be pointed out in 8 Phases as follows: Eurasian Globalization phase, Afro-Euroasian Globalization phase, Oriental globalization phase 1, Oriental Globalisation phase 2, Multicentric globalisation phase, Euro-Atlantic Globalisation phase, 20th Century globalization phase, 21st Century globalisation phase.

Another important aspect of aforementioned transformation was the oceanic breakthrough of the newly emerging empires. In 1492, with the expedition of Christopher Columbus to India through western route practiced for the first time, sponsored by Isabella I of Castile, “The Age of Discovery” emerged.

The Age of Discovery led to a world in which foreign trade and colonialism became main dynamics. Transferring easy gold in great volumes from America to Europe caused a continental inflation paving the path for the mercantilist era. The European cities happened to be increasingly populated. Although states were conservative when it comes to the customs and trade, the feudal order of Europe has slowly been transformed into more centralized type of government. Besides, a new social class, bourgeoisie, has arisen; as a powerful opponent and challenger of the aristocracy of the dynasties itself.

The Renaissance, roughly between 14th-17th centuries, was a period of humanism; art, music and self- awareness arose firstly in Florence/Italy, and then spread throughout the whole continent. The Renaissance precipitated the Age of Enlightenment (17th-18th centuries) in various countries of Europe such as France, Scotland, Germany, and also in America.

The General Napoléon Bonaparte became “First Consul” in 1799; first decade of post-revolutionary France was not politically stable in essence. Napoléon then changed his title and became the emperor of France in 1804. It took a decade to be overthrown. That decade was famous with the Napoléonic Wars. France waged wars against great powers of Europe, such as Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain. At the Congress of Vienna (November 1814 – June 1815), after the defeat of France, the future of Europe and the order of post-war period were negotiated.

The United Nations (UN) was founded during 1945.

The Allied Powers: USA, USSR, UK, China (Big Four) and almost all of the countries including colonies of the Big Four and non- occupied countries by the Axis Powers that were Italy, Japan and Germany.

Each nation had a chair in UN General Assembly. Although Security Council, composed of fifteen members five of whom have permanent seats to generate a problematic issue about democracy of the Council; UN is still the most inclusive organization. It does not only regulate political sphere of the world, but also economic, social, and cultural fields with its funds, programmes and specialized agents: From United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to International Monetary Fund (IMF), from United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), from International Labour Organization (ILO) to International Maritime Organization (IMO), UN system, called UN Family, is like a spider web, producing standards coherent with its value sets and functions as a supreme organization on global issues which are not possible to be dealt with by particular nations.

Mikhail Gorbachev, who took the USSR presidency in 1985, had a policy agenda to reform the country in a liberal way to overcome economic crises in the country. The reform was symbolized with four concepts: glasnost (openness), perestroika (restructuring), demokratizatsiya (democratization), and uskoreniye (acceleration of economic development). Then, synchronized with democratic reforms, ethnic and nationalist opposition movements and economic crises led the country into a dissolution. In December 1991, Gorbachev declared the end of USSR, and the Russian Federation was founded with the presidency of Boris Yeltsin. Russian Federation pursued market privatization and trade liberalization policies as well to get structurally ready to be a member of globalized world. Globalization and liberalization became the most popular concept during the fall of Eastern bloc. However, Fukuyama (1992) announced the end of ideologies and the triumph of liberalism over communism. Fall of USSR signified the standardization of ideologies and value sets all over the world, which was Western type of democracy, human rights, and liberalism.

When Fukuyama (1992) mentioned about the end of history, Huntington (1993) defended the opinion of new conflicts will built upon not ideologies but civilizations. That was true that USA had promoted democratic and liberal values over the world in 1990s. But, also 11 September 2001 was a date of chaos in USA. Terrorist attacks hit Pentagon and World Trade Centre. Al Qaeda undertook the attacks, and Afghanistan intervention of USA started a couple of days later. War against terrorism was the motto of the new era, and USA regarded itself responsible to fight against terrorist groups all over the world. Also, President G. W. Bush entitled states that support terrorism as “axis of evil”, and perceived them as enemies of the world order. Iraq intervention in 2003, alleged possession of mass destruction weapons, was another part of the war against terrorism. States like Libya, North Korea, Iran and Venezuela were listed among the axis of evil states by their anti-democratic behaviours.

They are used as instruments toachieve their objectives

It refers to the function of creating norms, values etc.)

EU is claassified as a partially supranational organization

ILO is an example of hybrid international non-governmental organization