ULUSLARARASI ÖRGÜTLENME VE KÜRESEL YÖNETİŞİM

The discipline of International Relations refers to the Peace of Westphalia that ended the 30 Years’ War in 1648 as “the dawn of the modern international system.” The treaties signed in Münster and Osnabrück in 1648 indicate the political and diplomatic development that paved the way to the establishment of international institutions. The Peace of Westphalia ended the feudal system based on the primacy of thePapacy and the Holy Roman Empire and led to the emergence of new political entities called “sovereign states.” Thus, it indeed marked the beginning of an international milieu that would facilitate the emergence of nation-states.

The correct choice is C.

Though no international organization emerged as a body until the late 19th century, the way in which these peace accords were made initialized a method that enabled states to communicate collectively through diplomatic instruments. The peace of Westphalia was in the 17th century.

The correct choice is D.

The Congress convened in November 1814 in Vienna.

The correct choice is C.

In March 1814, four major powers of Europe, namely England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria came to an agreement and signed the Treaty of Chaumont to form the coalition that would eventually defeat Napoleon.

Britain decided to join the Holy Alliance. As a result, the treaty establishing the Quadruple Alliance was signed on 20 November 1815. However, this does not mean that Britain embraced the values of the absolute monarchies, nor did Britain and other members of the Quadruple Alliance stop seeing France and the effects of the French Revolution as a threat to their regimes.

The correct choice is B.

It is true that the Congress of Vienna reinstituted the status of the European powers (E), but the most significant outcome of the Congress of Vienna was the creation of a new diplomatic and political system in Europe, which is referred to as the Concert of Europe.

The correct choice is B.

The Berlin Congress was the first international meeting where previously-formed committees examined all issues ahead of the Congress. As such, the success of the Berlin Congress was attributed to the preparatory meetings of these committees. Following the Berlin Conference, these organizational procedures became common practice in future conferences.

The correct choice is D.

After the end of the Russo-Japanese War, the Russians also called for a second conference. The US insisted on the participation of the Latin Americans in the conference; as a result, a total of 44 countries attended The Second Hague Conference. Because of this, the Second Conference was accepted as the first real “World Congress” in the history of modern international relations.

The correct choice is D.

The primary problem of the League was the assumed equality among its members. As it was a design of the victorious states of World War I, the US, Britain, France, Japan, and Italy were given permanent membership in the Council. After the US rejection of the League of Nations, the Council was dominated by European powers. Although it was one of the permanent members, Japan became quickly disillusioned when the principle of racial equality was not accepted.

The correct choice is C.

The Assembly of the League held a final meeting in Geneva and declared that all its technical missions and properties were transferred to the recently-established UN. With this declaration, the League officially ceased to exist on 16 April 1946.

The correct choice is D.

The discipline of International Relations refers to the Peace of Westphalia that ended the 30 Years’ War in 1648 as “the dawn of the modern international system.”

The perfect example of the 18th century Congress System is the Utrecht Congress, which convened in 1713 to end the War of the Spanish Succession. Regardless of their size or strength, all the European sovereign states were represented at the Congress. They negotiated for the finest “peace” that they could get at the table. The congress aimed to optimize the European political map and the political system to satisfy the interests of every state represented.

In March 1814, four major powers of Europe, namely England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria came to an agreement and signed the Treaty of Chaumont to form the coalition that would eventually defeat Napoleon.

The Berlin Congress was the first international meeting where previously-formed committees examined all issues ahead of the Congress. As such, the success of the Berlin Congress was attributed to the preparatory meetings of these committees

Despite the rise of liberalism and nationalism in the 19th century and the dissolution of absolute monarchies, dynastic kinship still acted as a network in diplomacy. Royal family ties were still functional; international problems were regularly negotiated in royal gatherings. Monarchs were credible mediators for settling international conflicts. However, power shifted to public decision-makers within states, and the role of the royals ended.

The Concert of Europe and its congress diplomacy had both positive and negative outcomes by the end of the 19th century:

• The congress system proved to be the best mechanism for mediation and arbitration among European powers. Besides, meeting periodically at the congresses contributed to the construction of a collective identity among Europeans, because the common diplomatic language and codes created shared understandings among states. However, the system was confined to Europe. NonEuropeans were neither familiar with the congress diplomacy nor shared a common understanding of diplomacy and customs.

• The Concert contributed to the cooperation among European states for maintaining peace as well as the governance of the system. However, it did not produce permanent international bodies for resolving the disputes. Nor did it contribute to the institutionalization of international regulations and norms by way of codifying them into international law. The Concert never encouraged its members to create further organizations. As such, it was only an instrument of collective diplomacy, not an organizational body to regulate the international system. Its structure was determined by the great powers which produced rival blocks by the end of the century.

• In European politics the congress system served as a tool of peacebuilding after the armed conflicts. However, it failed to prevent the confrontations of Europeans with non-European powers as the cases of US-Spanish War of 1898 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 illustrated.

• Although the congress system was the primary tool of great power diplomacy, the outcome of the congresses never surpassed the will and interests of their organizers. In other words, the Concert was designed to favor the great powers and contribute to their common interests. Probably, this is the most negative legacy of the Concert for future international organizations, because it undermined the principle of sovereign equality.

A civil initiative in Switzerland successfully created the first international regulatory organization for war: the International Committee for Relief to Wounded in 1863 that was later renamed as the International Committee of the Red Cross. Subsequently, twelve countries signed the First Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field in August 1864.

The major outcome of The Hague Conference was the creation of the International Court of Arbitration, which was designed as a permanent international body for states to settle international disputes by judicial means. This showed the will of the participant states to reinforce the role of international law in international relations.

The League of Nations had five major objectives:

• to prevent future wars,

• to enforce disarmament,

• to promote the international law,

• to provide with people better conditions of living,

• to enforce the peace treaties signed in Paris, primarily the Treaty of Versailles.

Consequences of the Peace of Westphalia may be summarized as follows: • First, the peace treaties were negotiated and signed by the states dominated by the rulers that were commonly accepted as sovereigns of their realms. • Second, the physical borders of each state were recognized and commonly accepted. Therefore, each of these units represented a political entity. • Third, each sovereign who represented a state was accepted as equal, regardless of the size of lands they ruled or the nobility o which they belonged. • Fourth,thoughno international organization emerged as a body until the late 19th century, the way in which these peace accords were made initialized a method that enabled states to communicate collectively through diplomatic instruments. Thus, it is possible to assert that the Peace of Westphalia laid the foundations of collective diplomacy and established the basis of the Congress System that would help institutionalize the international environment in the following centuries.