ULUSLARARASI ÖRGÜTLENME VE KÜRESEL YÖNETİŞİM - Deneme Sınavı - 3

After the end of the Russo-Japanese War, the Russians also called for a second conference. The US insisted on the participation of the Latin Americans in the conference; as a result, a total of 44 countries attended The Second Hague Conference. Because of this, the Second Conference was accepted as the first real “World Congress” in the history of modern international relations.

The correct choice is D.

The primary problem of the League was the assumed equality among its members. As it was a design of the victorious states of World War I, the US, Britain, France, Japan, and Italy were given permanent membership in the Council. After the US rejection of the League of Nations, the Council was dominated by European powers. Although it was one of the permanent members, Japan became quickly disillusioned when the principle of racial equality was not accepted.

The correct choice is C.

The Assembly of the League held a final meeting in Geneva and declared that all its technical missions and properties were transferred to the recently-established UN. With this declaration, the League officially ceased to exist on 16 April 1946.

The correct choice is D.

The discipline of International Relations refers to the Peace of Westphalia that ended the 30 Years’ War in 1648 as “the dawn of the modern international system.”

The perfect example of the 18th century Congress System is the Utrecht Congress, which convened in 1713 to end the War of the Spanish Succession. Regardless of their size or strength, all the European sovereign states were represented at the Congress. They negotiated for the finest “peace” that they could get at the table. The congress aimed to optimize the European political map and the political system to satisfy the interests of every state represented.

In March 1814, four major powers of Europe, namely England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria came to an agreement and signed the Treaty of Chaumont to form the coalition that would eventually defeat Napoleon.

The Berlin Congress was the first international meeting where previously-formed committees examined all issues ahead of the Congress. As such, the success of the Berlin Congress was attributed to the preparatory meetings of these committees

Despite the rise of liberalism and nationalism in the 19th century and the dissolution of absolute monarchies, dynastic kinship still acted as a network in diplomacy. Royal family ties were still functional; international problems were regularly negotiated in royal gatherings. Monarchs were credible mediators for settling international conflicts. However, power shifted to public decision-makers within states, and the role of the royals ended.

The establishment of the International Danube Commission for the regulation of free navigation in the river was the first initiative in forming an international body for the governance of a particular international issue.

The Concert of Europe and its congress diplomacy had both positive and negative outcomes by the end of the 19th century:

• The congress system proved to be the best mechanism for mediation and arbitration among European powers. Besides, meeting periodically at the congresses contributed to the construction of a collective identity among Europeans, because the common diplomatic language and codes created shared understandings among states. However, the system was confined to Europe. NonEuropeans were neither familiar with the congress diplomacy nor shared a common understanding of diplomacy and customs.

• The Concert contributed to the cooperation among European states for maintaining peace as well as the governance of the system. However, it did not produce permanent international bodies for resolving the disputes. Nor did it contribute to the institutionalization of international regulations and norms by way of codifying them into international law. The Concert never encouraged its members to create further organizations. As such, it was only an instrument of collective diplomacy, not an organizational body to regulate the international system. Its structure was determined by the great powers which produced rival blocks by the end of the century.

• In European politics the congress system served as a tool of peacebuilding after the armed conflicts. However, it failed to prevent the confrontations of Europeans with non-European powers as the cases of US-Spanish War of 1898 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 illustrated.

• Although the congress system was the primary tool of great power diplomacy, the outcome of the congresses never surpassed the will and interests of their organizers. In other words, the Concert was designed to favor the great powers and contribute to their common interests. Probably, this is the most negative legacy of the Concert for future international organizations, because it undermined the principle of sovereign equality.

A civil initiative in Switzerland successfully created the first international regulatory organization for war: the International Committee for Relief to Wounded in 1863 that was later renamed as the International Committee of the Red Cross. Subsequently, twelve countries signed the First Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field in August 1864.

The major outcome of The Hague Conference was the creation of the International Court of Arbitration, which was designed as a permanent international body for states to settle international disputes by judicial means. This showed the will of the participant states to reinforce the role of international law in international relations.

The League of Nations had five major objectives:

• to prevent future wars,

• to enforce disarmament,

• to promote the international law,

• to provide with people better conditions of living,

• to enforce the peace treaties signed in Paris, primarily the Treaty of Versailles.

In March 1814, four major powers of Europe, namely England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria came to an agreement and signed the Treaty of Chaumont to form the coalition that would eventually defeat Napoleon.

Following the Battle of Waterloo, the major powers signed two separate alliance treaties consecutively, the Holy Alliance and the Quadruple Alliance. The former, signed on 18 September 1815, was a proclamation of the three East European monarchies, that is, the royal houses of Habsburg, Hohenzollern, and Romanov

According to John Ikenberry, the Concert of Europe had three major mechanisms: • The Quadruple Alliance (later Quintuple) that was extended to the peacetime and formed the great power ensemble. • The periodical congress system that served as an institutional consultation mechanism among great powers to maintain the status quo. • The diffusion of “promulgation of norms and rules of European public law” that gave “the institutional, territorial, and great-power arrangements in Europe a certain sense of legal-based legitimacy and authority” (Ikenberry, 2001: 98).

According to Schechter, these early public international unions had numerous functions. They served as the: • Collection point and clearinghouses for information, • Centers for collective decisions on the solution of common problems, • Tools for the coordination of national policy and practices, • Agencies for promoting uniform standards in their fields.

The First Hague Conference was held in May 1899 with the attendance of 26 states.

The First Hague Conference was held in May 1899 with the attendance of 26 states.

At The Second Hague Conference, thirteen conventions and one declaration were signed. They were mostly related to arbitration, regulations on war as well as land and naval warfare.