ULUSLARARASI İLİŞKİLER TEORİLERİ II - Deneme Sınavı - 16

As a pure critique, critical theory is usually regarded as a critique of modernity and by extension, a critique of the developments and institutions associated with modern society. It can also be a critique of particular schools of thought within social sciences, rejecting their domination. More recently, a large part of critical theory has been the critique of art and culture, in particular the consumer culture, advertising, the media, and other forms of popular culture.

The idea of both “suffering” and “happiness” takes place in Horkheimer’s works. Horkheimer’s thoughts on suffering owe a great deal to Marx’s views on the capitalist system that enslaves people. On the other hand, the notion that human beings have an inner drive to overcome suffering is taken from the early libido theory of Sigmung Freud, an Austrian neurologist who developed psychoanalysis, as well as Erich Fromm, a German social psychologist and psychoanalyst, who was associated with the Frankfurt School in the 1930s.

Critical theory is not only an academic approach but also an emancipatory thought committed to the formation of a more equal and just world. It seeks to explain the reasons why the realization of this goal is difficult to achieve. Therefore, what is crucial is not only the social explanation but also politically motivated action to achieve an alternative set of social relations based on justice and equality. For emancipatory social change, Horkheimer believes that there are some forces of resistance left within humans and that the spirit of humanity is still alive, if not in the individual as a member of social groups, at least in the individual as far as he or she is left alone. Horkheimer is certainly aware of the structural constraints, but he does suggest that it is possible to engage in a kind of non-conformism at least (without much of a description of what it would be like), which comes through the spontaneity of the individual subject.

Critical theory is also deeply concerned with the fate of modernity. It has offered systematic and comprehensive theories of the trajectory of modernity, combined with critical diagnoses of some of the latter’s limitations, pathologies and destructive effects, while providing defenses of some of its progressive elements.

The birth of critical theory is greatly inspired by Karl Marx’s theoretical formulation of the relationship between economic base and ideological superstructure. The approach of Marx tends to focus on how power and domination operate, in particular, in the realm of the superstructure.

Speech act is a theory on the actual communicative function of language, attempting to find out the extent to which impartial interaction is possible between speakers. The theory was particularly developed by John L. Austin and John Searle, who argued that the order of words has primary meaning and clearly convey the messages of the speaker.

The first step of critical theory is to have an understanding of itself, to be aware of social, cultural, and political issues through the engagement in self-reflexive reasoning. From a critical standpoint, the theorist must acknowledge that theory is itself a social construction that must reflect upon itself and take a normative position on the world. This self-reflexive dimension is what allegedly enables critical theory to produce knowledge without reproducing and reinforcing the inequities of the status quo.

The critique of domination and exploitation constitutes critical theory’s ontological dimension. Marx treated Kant’s fundamental philosophical questions about human beings and their knowledge, activities, and hopes in the form of a critical political economy. Marx’s reformulation of Kant’s question was his categorical imperative that is the critique of domination and exploitation.

Praxeology is the study of aspects of human action, especially political action and ethics. It is concerned with the conceptual analysis and logical implications of preference, choice, means, and so forth.

There were two particular scholars who played a crucial role in connecting critical theory to international relations by influencing two other significant scholars in the area. The first was Antonio Gramsci, who influenced Robert Cox, and the second was Jürgen Habermas from the Frankfurt School, who influenced Andrew Linklater.

Cultural hegemony is basically the dominant ideology of the society that reflects the beliefs and interests of the ruling class. More specifically, the term refers to the ability of a group of people to hold power over social institutions, and thus, to strongly influence the values, norms, and worldview of the rest of society. According to Gramsci, cultural hegemony functions by achieving the consent of the masses to abide social norms and the rules of law by framing the worldview of the ruling class. It is most strongly manifested when those ruled by the dominant group come to believe that the economic and social conditions are natural and inevitable, rather than created by people, with a vested interest in a particular capitalist order.

Critical theory is, in a generic sense, a social theory oriented toward criticizing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theories that aim only to understand or explain it.

Jürgen Habermas started to the second generation of critical theory in 1970s.

Critical theory actually differs from post-modern theories though it may resemble them, at first glance, in terms of its criticizing character. However, post- modern theories tend to argue that modernity has ended or that modernity must be rejected completely. Post-modernists may even reject social theory and political practice, whereas critical theorists tend to theorize extensively and some argue that politics can be used to pursue progress.

The consideration of psychoanalysis by the Frankfurt School was also due to Horkheimer’s encouragement. It was Eric Fromm, nevertheless, who achieved a significant advancement of the discipline. His central aim was to provide, through a synthesis of Marxism and psychoanalysis, “the missing link” between ideological superstructure and socio-economic base.

Following Marx’s critical steps, Georg Lukacs and Antonio Gramsci developed theories that explored the cultural and ideological sides of power and domination. Both Lukacs and Gramsci focused their critique on the social forces that prevent people from seeing and understanding the forms of power and domination that exist in society.

Ontology is a theory of being, it deals with the question how reality is organized and develops.

Positivist epistemology is supported by the claims of a neutral, non-normative, and value-free production of knowledge.

Critical ethics forms a praxeological aspect of critical theory. Critical theory certainly wants to increase and maximize human happiness.

Critical theory feels associated with actual and potential social struggles of exploited and oppressed groups.

There were two particular scholars who played a crucial role in connecting critical theory to international relations by influencing two other significant scholars in the area. The first was Antonio Gramsci, who influenced Robert Cox, and the second was Jürgen Habermas from the Frankfurt School, who influenced Andrew Linklater.

Ideal speech is the critical tool used in the reconstruction of political communities, from local to global levels, through open dialogue and non-coercive communication, a process whereby all affected by political decisions put forward their claims and justify them on the basis of rational and universally-accepted principles of validity.