ULUSLARARASI İLİŞKİLER TEORİLERİ II - Deneme Sınavı - 12

Traditional theories with a positivist approach do not criticize the society in an effective manner since they consider the social world as given and ‘out there’. Because such a critique requires scientifically “unverified” value judgements. According to Max Horkheimer, traditional theory is about the reproduction of status quo (Sheenan, 2005: 154). Nevertheless, critical theory that questions the objective knowledge argument of positivism, refuses the idea of irrevocability of dominant thoughts, practices and social conditions. That is why, critical theory has an argument for significant potential of humanity in the direction of alternation (Sheenan, 2005: 154). Doğru cevap A'dır.

Frankfurt School criticizes the unequal and hierarchic structures that limit the free development of individuals. Therefore, the most important contribution of Frankfurt School to critical security studies is the concept of “emancipation”. In this framework, whilst thinkers of Frankfurt School mention about the transformation potential in human relations, it claims for alternative aims that give central position to individuals in the security thinking. Doğru cevap C'dir.

For Cox who introduced his critiques to dominant theories of international relations with a Gramscian perspective, “theory is always for someone and for some purposes” (Cox, 1981: 128). If values and ideas are the reflections of specific social relationships, all knowledge should reflect a specific context, time and space. In other words, knowledge cannot be timeless and objective in contrast to realist argument (Hobden and Jones, 2001: 211). That is why, there is not a simple dividing line between values and facts. In this context, allegedly all objective and value-free theories, thoughts and analyses should be viewed with a critical manner. According to Cox, regarding the world as given, helps to legitimization of dominant hegemonic relationships in world politics. Doğru cevap B'dir.

While traditional security conception defines the Security Studies in terms of the study of the threat, use, and control of military force (Walt, 1991), critical approaches to security focus on the normative choices and their political implications. Doğru cevap E'dir.

Still, there are some reasons that lead to consideration of the state as the dominant actor of security studies. Firstly, state is the only actor which has the legitimacy on the use of violence in international society. Secondly, state is regarded as the best endowed actor for responding to security threats. Thirdly, since established security thinking is based on a state-centric and military based conception, analytical perspectives in security analyses are conditioned to focus on the state (Bilgin, 2003: 216). In addition to these evaluations, state actor has a high level of capacity and flexibility to adopt itself to new conditions. Doğru cevap C'dir.

Given the growing importance of individual security in Securiy Studies sub-field, it is worth to examine the human security concept. It can be claimed that intellectual underpinnings of human security can be rooted in the Enlightenment era. For instance, Emile Durkheim argues that the state becomes stronger and more active as the individual becomes freer. Doğru cevap B'dir.

United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) 1994 Human Development Report represents a turning point for inclusion of human security concept into Security Studies sub-field (UNDP, 1994). In this Report, it is stated that the most important concerns for human security are grounded in socio-economic problems and human rights violations. Accordingly, the concepts of personal security, community security, economic security, food security, environmental security, political security and health security are described as categories of human security (UNDP, 1994). As can be seen, the concept of human security comprises the actors and agendas beyond those of traditional international politics (Ovalı, 2006: 5-22). Doğru cevap E'dir.

In economic security, threats are defined in the following ways; working conditions, employment opportunities, wage and income conditions, poverty, homelessness and job security, etc. In food security, threats are defined as poor access to food and drinkable water, etc. In health security, threats are defined as infectious diseases and cancer, absence of drinkable water, air pollution and poor access to health-care services, etc. In environmental security, threats are defined as degradation of ecosystem, water scarcity, deforestation, air pollution and natural disasters, etc. In personal security, threats are defined in the context of physical violence such as torture, war, ethnic tension, crime and street violence, rape, child abuse, suicide and drug use. In community security, threats are defined as discrimination, assimilation, ethnic tension, genocide, ethnic cleansing and weakening and/or disappearing of traditional languages and cultures, etc. In political security, threats are defined as political repressions of the state and governments, systematic human rights violations, militarization of the society, etc. Doğru cevap C'dir.

According to Aberystwyth School, emancipation should be at the center of security thinking. Ken Booth explains the importance of emancipation concept for security studies in following ways: “Security and emancipation are two sides of the same coin. Emancipation, not power or order, produces true security. Emancipation, theoretically, is security” (Booth, 1991: 319). In respect of question how ‘true’ security will be provided, Aberystwyth School claims that there can be an alternative reality, and that is why, security should be understood as emancipation. The concept of emancipation distinguishes Aberystwyth School from other critical perspectives on security (Sheenan, 2005: 158-59). Doğru cevap D'dir.

According to Johan Galtung, who is the most prominent representative of Peace Studies, the biggest, the most important and the most durable threat to the survival of human beings is the social structure in which they face extensive injustices and deprivation.

Aberystwyth School analyses the traditional security conception and seeks to examine the involvement of current structures and practices in continuation of repression, inequality and injustice in world politics.

The term of critical security studies is occasionally used to describe all perspectives which criticizes the traditional security conception.

The most important characteristics of Aberystwyth School can be summarized as follows: 1. Addressing the security as derivative concept, 2. Claim for necessity of widening of security agenda, 3. Privileging of individual as the referent object of security, 4. Regarding security problematique in the context of emancipation concept, 5. Considering the threats in a socially constructed manner, 6. Examining the relationships between self and other.

Ken Booth, Richard Wyn Jones, Keith Krause and Michael C. Williams have made crucial contributions to the development process of Aberystwyth School through their studies on security concept.

Critical security studies emerged as a reaction to the problem-solving theories in Security Studies subfield.

For Robert Cox who introduced his critiques to dominant theories of international relations with a Gramscian perspective, “theory is always for someone and for some purposes”

For Aberystwyth School, knowledge is produced socially and politically.

The human security conception’s emphasis on (1) the need of broadening of security agenda, (2) the connection between freedom and security and (3) prioritizing of individual instead of the state can be considered as main common points with critical security studies.

Emancipation needs to be understood in a way that security should be ensured by considering the needs of others, not at the expense of them.

The debates on the meaning and nature of security have largely intensified among the scholars of International Relations discipline since the end of the Cold War. In the last couple of decades, new security conceptions and theories have emerged, and they are called as “critical security studies”. The answer is C.