ULUSLARARASI İLİŞKİLER TEORİLERİ I

Cosmopolitanism is the idea that all of humanity belongs to a single global community. Every human being was seen as a citizen of the world in his capacity of “reason” regardless of bloodlineage and racial origins. The thinkers of the Enlightenment, such as Kant, in the eighteenth century, embraced this idea. With the rise of Imperialism and Nationalism in the nineteenth century, however, cosmopolitanism was criticized as an unrealistic, utopian vision.

Cicero (BC 106-43) who is an important philosopher in the western thought stated that true law is a law in coincidence with the nature. Cicero pointed out that a single justice depending on single law is valid for all society. For him, if there was not justice in the nature, it would not be known as the concept of justice (Viotti and Kauppi, 1993: 533).

In Kantian idealism, there is an understanding of cosmopolitan international society which is composed of individuals, states and other actors adopting ethical principles. Right reason which has a different character transcends the law made by states, necessitates to fulfill states’ responsibilities stemming from universal law. This indicates the way toward the state of perpetual peace. A world federation formed by peaceful states was introduced by Kant as a recipe to solve the security demands of states (Viotti and Kauppi, 1993: 533).

In the writings of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), it is claimed that the principle of utilitarianism (principle of pleasure and satisfaction) should be obeyed to reach to the best. For utilitarianism, if fundamental institutions are reshaped or reconstructed for providing the highest satisfaction, then it is certain that the society is regulated rightly.

According to Locke and Rousseau, by forming a higher authority, individuals would accept voluntarily to leave their certain rights to preserve their freedoms and security (freedom of life). Social contract theory depends on the assumption that the individuals might voluntarily bind themselves to the certain principles. From this point, like stag hunt model of game theory, individuals would sacrifice their small satisfactions to reach a highest satisfaction.

Locke’s arguments for the social contract, and for the right of citizens to revolt against their king were enormously influential on the democratic revolutions that followed, especially on Thomas Jefferson, and the founders of the United States.

Rawl’s concept of justice founded the background of new economic order demands of poor Third World countries to fill the rift between North and South (Viotti and Kauppi, 1993: 534).

Jus ad bellum refers to the conditions under which States may resort to war or to the use of armed force in general. The prohibition against the use of force amongst States and the exceptions to it (self-defence and UN authorization for the use of force), set out in the United Nations Charter of 1945, are the core ingredients of jus ad bellum.

A principle of international law that treaties and other international engagements are binding upon the nations that accede to them, and obligations accepted under such engagements must be performed, or reparations made in the event of a breach.

In addition to the fact that foreign policy

activities are tied to moral principles, some foreign

policy goals also have ethical and moral content.

Foreign policy goals are addressed to certain

concepts such as peace, law, justice, international

stability, social solidarity and freedom.

Cosmopolitanism is the idea that all of humanity belongs to a single global community.

According to Hobbes, good or bad are relative concepts and consequently there is no absolute good and absolute bad. There are no sensible and objective criteria to divide the good and bad; in contrast, it depends subjectively to the individuals themselves.

Moral universalism (also called moral objectivism) is the meta-ethical position that some system of ethics, or a universal ethic, applies universally, that is, for “all similarly situated individuals”, regardless of culture, race, sex, religion, nationality, sexual orientation, or any other distinguishing feature. Moral universalism is opposed to moral nihilism and moral relativism.

Social contract theory depends on the assumption that the individuals might voluntarily bind themselves to the certain principles.

Utilitarian philosophy assumes that the individual who works for his own utility, automatically works for the utility of community.

Jus ad bellum refers to the conditions under which States may resort to war or to the use of armed force in general.

Self-determination is the right of the people of a particular place to choose the form of government they will have.

American President George W. Bush, in 2001, identified the attack of Al-Qaeda as an attack to the democracy and human rights, and he also introduced the operation against Afghanistan with the concepts of “perpetual peace” (or infinite peace) and “infinite justice/enduring freedom”.

Covert operations aim to secretly fulfill their mission objectives without any parties knowing who sponsored or carried out the operation.

Normative theories, essentially are related with the subjects of philosophy and ethic. Perpetual peace approach of Kant and European federation idea of J. J. Rousseau were interesting examples for normative studies. Value is always an important element for the background of normative studies, and such theories placed the discussion of politics in the context of morality. Here, moral factors became evident and interests were expressed through moral and ethical dimensions or in the context of values related to ideology, morality and politics (Johari, 1985: 72).
However, normative theories rest on value preferences which cannot be tested or verified with factual experiments and this is an important difference from empirical/positivist theories. Moreover, they are not concerned with the proposition related to “what is” but “what ought to be, what should be” (Viotti and Kauppi, 1993:5;
Rosenau, 1993, 25; Frost, 1986: 15).
Empirical theories intensify on the real reasons of relations between statesmen and foreign policy. Diplomatic history introduces ample proofs for this perspective. From time to time, this contention is conducted in the axis of idealism-realism. However, the traces of the elements of value and norm would be seen in the studies carried out in the framework of realism as well. Therefore, this subjective factor could not be completely eliminated in empirical theories too. Empirical political scientists sometimes use the normative/philosophical concepts, even if they adopt empirical facts. In this context, coinciding theory and fact, inevitably, demonstrates the necessities that the empirical theories at the same time should utilize analytical approaches.

According to these information the correct answer is option E.