ULUSLARARASI İLİŞKİLER TARİHİ - Deneme Sınavı - 7

The main justification of the nationalist rebellion was based on religion, insofar as it was seen as a crusade against the destruction of Catholicism in Spain. Indeed, the rebellion started with 160,000 men but grew to more than 1 million troops by 1939. The war ended with around 200,000 war deaths and another 300.000 wounded. Nationalists justified their revolt as a holy war against “infidels” who sought to destroy the Catholic Church in Spain, for which the burning of churches and murder of clerics were blamed on Republicans. The correct answer is D.

Germany, Italy, and volunteers from other countries such as Portugal and France also joined the Spanish Civil War on the side of the nationalists. The correct answer is C.

Ideas such as state sovereignty, independence, or international law began in the 17th century. Therefore, the correct choice is D.

After the defeat of the Western Roman Empire by the Visigoths, a feudal state system came to dominate Western Europe until the 16th century. Therefore, the correct choice is A.

In Medieval Europe the Pope was a political figure who often had to deal with political disputes between kings and other rulers. Therefore, the correct choice is B.

The Renaissance began in the city-states of the Italian peninsula in the 15th century which had an important role in the emergence of modern state because it brought about a hugely renewed interest in classical political ideas such as Athenian democracy and Roman law and started a passion for learning that affected numerous cultural and technological breakthroughs. Therefore, the correct choice is C.

Italian political philosophers such as Marsiglio of Padua and Dante rediscovered many of the old Roman and Greek texts. These texts helped them intellectually shake the power of the papacy by arguing that the secular authorities not only ought to be separate from spiritual ones, but also reign supreme. Therefore, the correct choice is E.

The Peace of Westphalia ended the religious wars called the Thirty Years’ War in Europe. It has nothing to do with the wars between the Ottoman Empire and the countries in Europe. Therefore, the correct choice is E.

The Treaty of Kadesh was signed between the Egyptians and the Hittites. Therefore, the correct choice is C.

According to Paul Hirst, the modern state as three additional characteristics:
• First, a modern state has a definite territory with boundaries.
• Second, a modern state has exclusive control over that territory (sovereignty).
• Third, a modern state is the superior political actor (hierarchy)

Ancient Greece (500 BC-100 BC demonstrated an early example of a state system, when many small Greek city-states such as Athens, Sparta, Corinth, or Ephesus established extensive relations and an informal means of discussing the
major issues of the day. With small populations and territories and a lack of institutions such as international law, diplomacy, or international organization, the Greek state system was instead based on a shared language, culture, and common religion (Jackson and Sorensen, 2013: 12). These are the basic features that most distinguish it from the modern international system established after the Peace of Westphalia.

After the defeat of the Western Roman Empire, a feudal state system came to dominate Western Europe until the 16th century. The traditional tribute-taking empire based on coercive means and devoted more to expansion than governance, so typical of ancient Rome or China, finally gave way to a system of divided authority characterized by feudal relations, city-states with much
independence, and urban alliances in which the Papacy played a leading role (Held, 1995: 78-79). This system was embodied in the Holy Roman Empire for centuries

One of the outcomes of the Utrecht Peace was the exclusive access Holland and Great Britain received to trade with certain Spanish ports and territories. Therefore, the correct choice is B.

In the beginning of the 13th century, there were hundreds of city-states on the Italian peninsula. Gradually absorbed by the more powerful ones, by the 14th century more than twenty cities had populations over 20,000 people (Merriman, 2010: 45). Since urban areas were far more prone to the spread of ideas, the Renaissance kicked off in cities such as Florence, Venice, Siena, and Milan. What
made it possible was the economic prosperity and social dynamism of city-states, polities that had grown rich and independent from trade in the Mediterranean and Black Sea since the 11th century (Merriman, 2010: 46). These trade routes increased international trade in the region and helped citystates create small-scale manufacturing. As a result, Italian merchants grew very wealthy. This also helped develop a sophisticated banking system in the city-states in the 14th and 15th centuries, thus further financing internal trade and international commerce (Merriman, 2010: 46). The most prominent among them, such as Florence, soon became central to financing monarchies and even
the papacy (Merriman, 2010: 46). These developments led to increasing urbanization, eroded the power of the nobility, and increased the influence of townsmen. Before long urban merchants enriched by commerce had become important to local political life and soon joined the ruling elite (Merriman, 2010: 49). These dynamic urban societies and new urban elites were more open to new ideas because of traders and immigrants. People from different regions came together in the Italian city-states to exchange culture, ideas, beliefs, and intellectual accumulation. Another critical link in this development was the conquest of Istanbul in 1453, which encouraged many Eastern scholars to flee to the Italian peninsula, bringing with them vast collections of ancient books and manuscripts. This in turn led to the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman political and philosophical approaches (Merriman, 2010: 56).

A new class of urban patriarch also came to dominate these cities with power and patronage. Rather than invade neighboring states and amass new territories, however, they used their wealth to encourage new arts, technologies, and political theories. There were many consequences of this approach: first, the city-states struggled to establish their independence from both the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire from the 13th through the 16th centuries; second, Italian political philosophers such as Marsiglio of Padua and Dante rediscovered
many of the old Roman and Greek texts. These texts helped them intellectually undermine the power of the papacy by arguing that the secular authorities not only ought to be separate from spiritual ones, but also reign supreme (Hinsley, 1986: 82-88; Skinner, 1978: 8-22).

Sovereignty a condition necessary for states in that they are not subject to any higher authority… Internally governments have been subject to conventional standards, and externally conditions may mean that governments are more or less free to act independently. A sovereign government is free to choose within the framework of these conventions and standards. The correct answer is B.

In feudal Europe, there were two types of peasants. Serfs were semi-free peasants, while there were completely free peasants. The correct answer is E.

The Reformation was a religious, political, and cultural revolution that shattered the Catholic world in the 16th century. It first started in the German lands in 1517 when Martin Luther, a student of the Renaissance, published his ‘95 Theses,’ a series of critiques of Catholic doctrine which soon spread to the rest of much of Europe. The correct answer is B.

Luther also translated the Bible into German, which also helped rapidly spread his ideas given the huge recent gains in the development of the printing press (Alcock, 2002: 126), which rapidly led to further divisions. Between 1517 and 1520, Luther’s followers printed over 300,000 of his writings, and his pamphlets were read in universities and by clerics who went on to spread his ideas to even larger audiences across Germany (Philpott, 2000: 226). By the mid-16th century, Lutheranism was firmly established in northern and eastern Germany (Alcock, 2002: 127).

What did Westphalia result in? How did it influence the international political system? First, it led to a modicum of religious toleration by reiterating the principle of cuius regio, eius religio, first annunciated at the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. Principalities and other states now had jurisdiction over issues related to religion, and no longer took their cues from the Holy Roman Empire on these matters (Holsti, 1991: 34). More importantly, Europe’s internal wars of religion were by and large over (excepting those against the Ottoman Empire) (Holsti, 1991: 38). Second, and more importantly, the Habsburg family which united Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and many territories in Italy was now divided, as the emperor renounced his right to provide support to Spain (Holsti, 1991: 34-35). It also spelled the end of the Holy Roman Empire as a foreign policy-making body. According to these treaties, “the pattern of international relations in Europe was drastically changed: over three hundred political entities were now entitled to conduct foreign relations (make alliances), and the Holy Roman Emperor could not employ force in the conduct of foreign policy, or even make alliances, without the consent of the individual members of the Empire” (Holsti, 1991: 35). These formed the bedrock of European diplomacy until the French Revolution (Holsti, 1991: 38; Merriman, 2010: 145).