ULUSLARARASI GÜVENLİK

There are three conceptions of human security, natural rights-rule of law conception, humanitarian conception and broader view conception. Humanitarian conception is based on state’s and international community’s responsibility to protect human beings from human rights violations such as genocide, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace. The correct option is C.

The broader view was embraced in the 1994 Human Development Report under seven main domains: economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security. The correct option is D.

The evolution of human security can be analyzed in two separate periods, during the Cold War and in the post-Cold War era. The end of the Cold War changed the threat perception in international relations. The threat perception now encompasses non-military threats. Thus, the referent object of security is now not the state, but human beings. One can provide different reasons for this transformation; however, almost all scholars agree that since the end of Cold War, the state-centered threats lost their relative importance in the international system. The correct option is A.

The Non-Aligned Movement is an organization created by 29 Asian and African former colonial countries in Bandung/Indonesia in 1955. All these countries strived to follow an independent foreign policy from both NATO and the Warsaw Pact and supported the independence movements. They followed an agenda for economic development, disarmament, and economic inequality between countries. The correct option is C.

The argument that environmental change was a security issue pointed out for the first time in 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development, which became popularly known as the Rio Earth Summit. The Earth Summit as the largest conference brought together more than a hundred state leaders and established the Commission on Sustainable Development, which provided the political basis for the concept of sustainable development. During the 1992 Rio Earth Summit conference, world leaders highlighted a number of environmental problems including biodiversity, the growing ozone hole, pollution, desertification, and climate change. The correct option is B.

Kyoto Protocol (1997): is the main international treaty on global warming, which entered into effect in 2005 and mandates cuts in carbon emissions in 2008–2012. Almost all the world’s major countries, except the United States, are participants. The correct option is C.

Emerging markets is one of the current economic issues. The correct option is B.

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs or MDG 8) are a long -and medium- term (to be achieved by 2015) development agenda approved by the UN General Assembly in December 2000. Their purpose was to inject renewed urgency into global development efforts by establishing challenging targets in each of the key human development areas.

The correct option is E.

The United Nations Development Program works in about 170 countries and territories, helping to achieve the eradication of poverty, and the reduction of inequalities and exclusion. The main three areas of UNDP are sustainable development, democratic governance and peace building and climate and disaster resilience.

Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is a norm based on states responsibility to protect their own citizens and the international community’s obligation to protect humans from serious violations such as genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

Type of Security

Examples of Main Threats

Economic security

Persistent poverty, unemployment

Food security

Hunger, famine

Health security

Deadly infectious diseases, unsafe food, malnutrition, lack of access to basic health care

Environmental security

Environmental degradation, resource depletion, natural disasters, pollution

Personal security

Physical violence, crime, terrorism, domestic violence, child labor

Community security

Inter-ethnic, religious and other identity based tensions

Political security

Political repression, human rights abuses

The Cold War was the rivalry between the United States of America and the Soviet Union as well as between their respective allies from the end of the Second World War to 1989. This rivalry was based on the ideological difference between the two superpowers. It never escalated into an actual conflict; it was rather based on the use of political, economic, bureaucratic, and propaganda tools despite the existence of proxy wars such as the Korean War (1950-1953), the Vietnam War (1955-1975), and the Soviet- Afghan War (1979-1989). The Cold War came to an end with the collapse of Communist bloc in 1989 and the dissolution of the USSR in 1991(Dağ, 2005, 93).

Security Dilemma is a situation in which actions taken by a state to increase its own security cause reactions from other states, which in turn lead to a decrease rather than an increase in the original state’s security.

While negative peace is related to the traditional security approach that is based on the absence of war between two states, positive peace refers to the establishment of a socially just system by taking into consideration all dimensions of human security.

After the publication of this report, the UN requested a final report for human security fromthe Commission on Human Security. The Commission specified the priorities of human security as follows (Human Security Now, 2003:133):

• Supporting the human security of people on the move;
• Establishing human security transition funds for post-conflict situations;
• Encouraging fair trade and markets to benefit the extreme poor;

• Providing minimum living standards everywhere;
• According high priority to universal access to basic health care;
• Developing an efficient and equitable global system for patent rights;
• Empowering all people with universal basic education, through much stronger global and national efforts;
• Clarifying the need for a global human identity while respecting the freedom of individuals to have diverse identities and affiliations.”

Apart from C, other options are possible threats to human security.

The overuse and depletion of shared resources by one or more groups in a bio-region, affecting others who also depend on the resources (often exacerbated by class, ethnic, national, or other divisions)

Biodiversity refers to the tremendous diversity of plant and animal species making up the earth’s (global, regional, and local) ecosystems.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): is the oldest permanent specialized agency of the United Nations, established in October 1945 with the objective of defeating hunger and improving nutrition and standards of living by increasing agricultural productivity. With over 194 member states, FAO works in over 130 countries. In agriculture, FAO is the lead agency. The correct option is E.

There are four main components of food security. These are availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability. Availability refers to whether food is physically available. In other words, it is related to the question of whether enough food is produced to meet the needs. The second dimension of food security is accessibility, which is the key issue when discussing food security. Utilization refers to food quality and nutritional content. This relates to health, HIV/AIDS, access to water and clean energy sources. FAO considers the principle of stability as the fourth dimension of food security. This principle is mostly related to the consequences of sudden shocks. The correct option is D.