ULUSLARARASI GÜVENLİK

Security dilemma is another key feature of the competitive international system. Security dilemma refers to a condition in which actions taken by one actor to improve its national security are interpreted as aggressive/offensive by other actors, thereby provoking military counter-moves.

In onshore balancing, a great power deploys some of its capacity forward in selected regions of the world to contain a rival. Offshore balancing, on the other hand, describes a strategy in which a great power keeps all of its national capabilities, particularly military capabilities, at home and uses regional powers and/or proxies to balance the threatening actors

buck-passing refers to the behavior of a state when it refuses to balance against a rising state, hoping that another threatened state will furnish the necessary blood and treasure

Although most alliances also comprise some activities that take place while the treaty is in force such as the coordination of doctrines or joint exercises, the backbone of an alliance is certain specific behaviors that shall be followed in case of a certain situation. This is sometimes referred to as casus foederis. This element distinguishes the alliances from mere security cooperation or nonaggression pacts.

The concept of strategic partnership has been widely used to describe the security alignments, among others, between Japan-Australia, the USAIndia, the USA-Turkey, and NATO-the EU. The strategic partnership is neither an alliance nor a coalition, rather a structured collaboration between states to take joint advantage of economic opportunities or to respond to security challenges more effectively.

George Liska, an advocate of the balance of power theory, uses historical cases to demonstrate the significance of this theory (Liska, 1962: 32- 33). To him, international relations and alliances are two indispensable concepts, and they always exist together.

During the last quarter of the 19th century, the balance of power in Europe was disrupted by several developments such as the weakness of France due to the Napoleonic wars, the retreat of the Ottoman Empire from Europe, and the rise of both Germany and Italy. Consequently, several alliances were formed which re-established the equilibrium in Europe.

The Cold War is assumed to have begun with the famous Iron Curtain speech by Winston Churchill on March 5, 1946.

A

The 2010 Strategic Concept, Active Engagement, Modern Defense, is a very clear and resolute statement on NATO’s core tasks and principles, its values, the evolving security environment and the Alliance’s strategic objectives for the next decade. After having described NATO as “a unique community of values committed to the principles of individual liberty, democracy, human rights and the rule of law,” it presents NATO’s three essential core tasks: collective defense, crisis management and cooperative security. It also emphasizes alliance solidarity, the importance of transatlantic consultation, and the need to engage in a continuous process of reform.

Alliances are said to be typically associated with the Westphalian state system and the European balance of power. However, many examples date back as early as to the 5th century BC, when two alliances were formed during the Peloponnesian War: the League of Delian led by Athens, and the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. Therefore, the correct option is D.

Anarchy refers to the absence of a central government or higher authority above the states that could enforce the rules in the system and prevent or stop the hostilities between states. It is sometimes, but not necessarily, associated with instability and chaos. Therefore, the correct option is A.

Within the balance of power politics, there is another strategy employed by states; bandwagoning. Bandwagoning refers to aligning with or joining the powerful actor toward protecting itself from fear and attack, even if this means insecurity and a certain sacrifice from its independence. In fact one can differentiate between two types of bandwagoning: defensive and offensive. In defensive bandwagoning, which is a form of appeasement, a state aligns with a threatening power to avoid being attacked. Offensive bandwagoning is alignment with a dominant state for the payoffs. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Although most alliances also comprise some activities that take place while the treaty is in force such as the coordination of doctrines or joint exercises, the backbone of an alliance is certain specific behaviors that shall be followed in case of a certain situation. This is sometimes referred to as casus foederis. This element distinguishes the alliances from mere security cooperation or nonaggression pacts. 

Casus Foederis: although alliances may be informal, they are typically formalized by a treaty of alliance, the most critical clauses of which are those that define the casus foederis, or the circumstances under which the treaty obligates an ally to aid a fellow member.

Therefore, the correct option is C.

In an entente, the signatories merely agree to consult one another in the event of a securitymilitary threat. An example of an entente is the British-French Entente Cordiale of 1904. No firm commitment exists between the partners. Entente agreements are relatively flexible associations, and they make sense only if they serve the common interests of the partners. Secrecy, ideological issues etc. are well delineated in alliance treaties but not in ententes. Therefore, the correct option is E.

An alliance carries out several functions for its members (Murphy, 2017: 25-26). First of all, an alliance contributes to the balance of power in a given setting. Defensive alliances deter aggressive states from using military force. Many examples of such alliances may be given that prevented fullscale wars between major actors. For example, NATO and the Warsaw Pact as the Cold War alliances deterred the rivals from resorting to military force after World War II. However, rather than using military force, the adversaries may resort to other means of international politics such as diplomatic negotiations, economic sanctions, trade restrictions, financial measures, cyber-attacks, and proxy wars.

A formal military alliance such as NATO usually has the purpose of collective defense, where its members pool their capabilities and launch a collective effort to protect one another against a potential outside aggressor.

Moreover, alliances help contain potential rivals. For example, the US has benefited from the alliances to contain the Soviet Union (later Russia), China, Iran, and other states that are perceived to be threatening the American political, military, and economic interests.

Furthermore, alliances enhance the power of its members. The military strength of an alliance naturally enhances the national power in terms of personnel, military equipment, defense spending, high technology, intelligence sharing, and financial resources. However, the gains of being within an alliance may vary from member to member. Small or minor powers may seek forming an alliance in order to increase their security on the basis of major power guarantees and to protect their territories and populations from possible military threats. However, major or great powers may be interested in forming an alliance with minor powers not to protect their territories and populations but rather to expand their military influence and diplomatic influence over other states or deny such influence to potential rivals.

Finally, alliances provide the members with cost-effective options in pursuing national security interests through pooling the military capabilities and sharing the financial burdens. Otherwise, the members would be forced to extensively increase their defense spending and conscript many people that may ultimately strain the workforce.

Therefore, the correct option is E.

The balance of power theory, however, is not exempt from criticism. Some scholars argue that the balance of power theory may have an explanatory power under certain historical conditions. A number of scholars question the validity of balance of power, since it ignores the perceptions of actors in balancing and forming alliances. For example, Stephen Walt questions the theory of balance of power on the grounds that the threat a state perceives is the most important driving factor for the balancing behavior. In other words, Walt suggest that states balance against threat, rather than against power. As such, Walt presents another theory of alliance: the balance of threat. Therefore, the correct option is C.

The 20th century also witnessed the formation of several alliances. During the First World War, the Central Powers included Germany, AustriaHungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. They fought against the Entente Powers of the Russian Empire, the British Empire, France, Italy, Serbia, Romania, and Portugal. During the Second World War, while the Axis Powers included Germany, Japan, Italy, Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria, the Allies consisted of the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China, Poland, France, and Yugoslavia. The Cold War was also characterized by military-political alliances. In fact NATO and the Warsaw Pact were ideologicallybased alliances of the twentieth century. Therefore, the correct option is E.

The Cold War is assumed to have begun with the famous Iron Curtain speech by Winston Churchill on March 5, 1946. Churchill said that “From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent.” The Cold War lasted more than four decades and ended with the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 . The most distinctive feature of the Cold War was the ideological struggle between the liberal Western Alliance and the socialist Eastern Alliance. The Western-Alliance nations came together under the NATO umbrella, whereas the Eastern Alliance formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Although the Warsaw Pact dissolved in 1991, NATO still survives and performs critical security functions. Therefore, the correct option is C.

NATO is an Alliance that consists of 29 independent member countries. Member states are the states that party to the NATO Treaty. The Twelve original members of the Alliance that founded the organization in 1949 are as follows: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

The other member countries that later joined the alliance are as follows: Greece and Turkey (1952), Germany (1955), Spain (1982), the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland (1999), Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia (2004), Albania and Croatia (2009), and Montenegro (2017).

Therefore, the correct option is D.