ULUSLARARASI GÜVENLİK - Deneme Sınavı - 8

Misgovernment is considered a cultural reason for terrorism. Loose democracy, poverty, wealth inequality, intellectual awakening or stimulation, and various other reasons such as joining a terrorist organization for adventure or financial motives are social-psychological reasons.

Today, groups or states employ yet another method to realize their political objectives: using some other states, groups or organizations instead of directly fighting with each other- which is called “proxy wars.” Proxy war may be defined as “conflicts in which a third party intervenes indirectly in order to influence the strategic outcome in favor of its preferred faction” (Mumford, 2013:40).

According to Terzi (2015: 194), cyber terrorism is politically motivated, and its instrument is the terror act itself; that is, it aims at influencing the behavior of millions of people. Its intent is to create impact; it aims at intervening in our daily lives as a result of the prevention of performance. Prevention of performance results from a motion that harbors corrupting the cyber systems and hurting or threatening people in the cyber space through using the global infrastructure. As implied by this definition, the death/ injury or the threat of death/injury is not a necessary component of cyber terrorism. But the death or the injury can also be one of the potential or willful consequences of cyber terrorism.

Finally, the army has three main roles in combating terrorism (Robertson, 2002):
• anti terrorism: defense measures to reduce vulnerability of populations, territories, and infrastructure, information and communication systems.
• counter terrorism: offensive measures to track down, prevent, deter, and interdict terrorist activities.
• result management: measures to limit the consequences of terrorist attacks, and to stabilize the situation in the aftermath of such attacks with the support of civilian authorities

In response to the new international order, non-traditional challenges at the turn of the millennium, United Nations (UN) Secretary-General Kofi Annan advanced the idea of ‘human security’ that includes three basic freedoms: “freedom from fear, freedom from want, freedom to live in dignity.”

Universal Declaration of Human Rights: is an international document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948 that articulates “the rights and freedoms to which every human being is equally and inalienably entitled (The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948: 6).

Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is a norm based on states responsibility to protect their own citizens and the international community’s obligation to protect humans from serious violations such as genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

Ad hoc International Criminal Tribunals: are the judicial mechanisms that were established by the UN Security Council in the framework of Resolution 827 for the former Yugoslavia and Resolution 955 for Rwanda. The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) was created in Arusha, Tanzania to “prosecute persons responsible for genocide and other serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of Rwanda and neighboring States, between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 1994”. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was created to “deal with war crimes that took place during the conflicts in the Balkans in the 1990s” The ICTR closed its doors in 2015.

Political repression and human rights abuses are categorized under political security.

Economic security - Persistent poverty, unemployment
Food security - Hunger, famine
Health security - Deadly infectious diseases, unsafe food, malnutrition, lack of access to basic health care
Environmental security - Environmental degradation, resource depletion, natural disasters, pollution
Personal security - Physical violence, crime, terrorism, domestic violence, child labor
Community security - Inter-ethnic, religious and other identity based tensions

The Cold War was the rivalry between the United States of America and the Soviet Union as well as between their respective allies from the end of the Second World War to 1989. This rivalry was based on the ideological difference between the two superpowers. It never escalated into an actual conflict; it was rather based on the use of political, economic, bureaucratic, and propaganda tools despite the existence of proxy wars such as the Korean War (1950-1953), the Vietnam War (1955-1975), and the SovietAfghan War (1979-1989). The Cold War came to an end with the collapse of Communist bloc in 1989 and the dissolution of the USSR in 1991(Dağ, 2005, 93).

While negative peace is related to the traditional security approach that is based on the
absence of war between two states, positive peace refers to the establishment of a socially just system by taking into consideration all dimensions of human security.

Dimensions of human security and lists PostCold War developments are as follows:
• growing disparities in economic opportunities both within and between states;
• increasing hardships faced by peoples in the developing world who found themselves on the margins of a globalizing world economy;
• diminishing non-renewable resources leading families and groups to become refugees;
• rising anti-foreigner feelings and violence in reaction to migration pressures from the developing to the developed world;
• proliferating intrastate conflicts increasing public interest in, and pressure for, humanitarian intervention.”

The priorities of human security cover not only the military threats but also issues of non-military security such as health and economic development. In other words, human security is not an alternative to the state-centered security approach; it rather complements traditional security approach in the following four different ways (Human Security Now, 2003:4):
• “Its concern is the individual and the community rather than the state;
• Menaces to people’s security includethreats and conditions that have not always been classified as threats to state security;
• The range of actors is expanded beyond the state alone;
• Achieving human security includes not just protecting people but also empowering people to fend for themselves.”

Two problems of the atmosphere, namely the global warming and the depletion of the ozone layer, had long been debated among scientists. The ozone layer has two basic functions for filtering the ultraviolet rays of the sun and dissipating the atmosphere. The depletion of the ozone layer allows more harmful rays to reach Earth, resulting in more skin cancer, weakened immune systems, reduced plant yields, damage to ocean ecosystems, and climate change.

Susan Strange  distinguishes between
four primary power structures:
• The knowledge structure, which influences
actor’s beliefs, ideas or perceptions;
• The financial structure, which controls
access to credit or investment;
• The security structure, which shapes defence
and strategic issues;
• The production structure, which affects
economic development and prosperity.

Hard power is the ability of one actor (usually
but not necessarily a state) to influence
another through the use of threats or
rewards, typically involving military ‘sticks’ or
economic ‘carrots’. Soft power is the ability to
influence other actors by persuading them to
follow or agree to norms and aspirations that
produce the desired behavior.

For realism, the state is the most important actor in the international system and is, therefore, the primary unit of analysis. The state, as an actor, must ensure its survival in a self-help situation. Survival becomes the first objective of the state.

In international politics, balance of power refers to a condition in which no one state predominates over others, tending to create general equilibrium and curb the hegemonic ambitions of all states. States may balance in several ways. When states attempt to balance threats by an increase of their national capabilities, this is called internal balancing. Alternatively, when they try to balance against a prevailing threat by the establishment of informal or formal alliances with other states, this is known as external balancing (Grieco, 1997: 160). Through internal and external efforts, a state can either increase its own capacity or impair that of its rival. While the former is called positive balancing, the latter is negative balancing (Steff and Khoo, 2014: 2227-228).

Bandwagoning refers to aligning with or joining the powerful actor toward protecting itself from fear and attack, even if this means insecurity and a certain sacrifice from its independence (Schroeder, 1994; Vasquez and Elman, 2003; Walt, 1987: 21; Mearsheimer, 2001). In fact one can differentiate between two types of bandwagoning: defensive and offensive. In defensive bandwagoning, which is a form of appeasement, a state aligns with a threatening power to avoid being attacked. Offensive bandwagoning is alignment with a dominant state for the payoffs

A defense pact requires its signatories to intervene with military force on behalf of any alliance partner(s) engaged in armed hostilities. The signatories to the defense pact determine the threats in the treaty and concretely prepare to respond to it together. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is the most frequently cited example of a defense pact. The Warsaw Pact was also a defense pact between the Soviet Union and seven other communist states during the Cold War. After it was dissolved in 1991, the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) was established in 1992 as a defense pact among Russia, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.