ULUSLARARASI GÜVENLİK - Deneme Sınavı - 1

Anarchy refers to the absence of a central government or higher authority above the states that could enforce the rules in the system and prevent or stop the hostilities between states. It is sometimes, but not necessarily, associated with instability and chaos. Therefore, the correct option is A.

Within the balance of power politics, there is another strategy employed by states; bandwagoning. Bandwagoning refers to aligning with or joining the powerful actor toward protecting itself from fear and attack, even if this means insecurity and a certain sacrifice from its independence. In fact one can differentiate between two types of bandwagoning: defensive and offensive. In defensive bandwagoning, which is a form of appeasement, a state aligns with a threatening power to avoid being attacked. Offensive bandwagoning is alignment with a dominant state for the payoffs. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Although most alliances also comprise some activities that take place while the treaty is in force such as the coordination of doctrines or joint exercises, the backbone of an alliance is certain specific behaviors that shall be followed in case of a certain situation. This is sometimes referred to as casus foederis. This element distinguishes the alliances from mere security cooperation or nonaggression pacts. 

Casus Foederis: although alliances may be informal, they are typically formalized by a treaty of alliance, the most critical clauses of which are those that define the casus foederis, or the circumstances under which the treaty obligates an ally to aid a fellow member.

Therefore, the correct option is C.

In an entente, the signatories merely agree to consult one another in the event of a securitymilitary threat. An example of an entente is the British-French Entente Cordiale of 1904. No firm commitment exists between the partners. Entente agreements are relatively flexible associations, and they make sense only if they serve the common interests of the partners. Secrecy, ideological issues etc. are well delineated in alliance treaties but not in ententes. Therefore, the correct option is E.

An alliance carries out several functions for its members (Murphy, 2017: 25-26). First of all, an alliance contributes to the balance of power in a given setting. Defensive alliances deter aggressive states from using military force. Many examples of such alliances may be given that prevented fullscale wars between major actors. For example, NATO and the Warsaw Pact as the Cold War alliances deterred the rivals from resorting to military force after World War II. However, rather than using military force, the adversaries may resort to other means of international politics such as diplomatic negotiations, economic sanctions, trade restrictions, financial measures, cyber-attacks, and proxy wars.

A formal military alliance such as NATO usually has the purpose of collective defense, where its members pool their capabilities and launch a collective effort to protect one another against a potential outside aggressor.

Moreover, alliances help contain potential rivals. For example, the US has benefited from the alliances to contain the Soviet Union (later Russia), China, Iran, and other states that are perceived to be threatening the American political, military, and economic interests.

Furthermore, alliances enhance the power of its members. The military strength of an alliance naturally enhances the national power in terms of personnel, military equipment, defense spending, high technology, intelligence sharing, and financial resources. However, the gains of being within an alliance may vary from member to member. Small or minor powers may seek forming an alliance in order to increase their security on the basis of major power guarantees and to protect their territories and populations from possible military threats. However, major or great powers may be interested in forming an alliance with minor powers not to protect their territories and populations but rather to expand their military influence and diplomatic influence over other states or deny such influence to potential rivals.

Finally, alliances provide the members with cost-effective options in pursuing national security interests through pooling the military capabilities and sharing the financial burdens. Otherwise, the members would be forced to extensively increase their defense spending and conscript many people that may ultimately strain the workforce.

Therefore, the correct option is E.

The balance of power theory, however, is not exempt from criticism. Some scholars argue that the balance of power theory may have an explanatory power under certain historical conditions. A number of scholars question the validity of balance of power, since it ignores the perceptions of actors in balancing and forming alliances. For example, Stephen Walt questions the theory of balance of power on the grounds that the threat a state perceives is the most important driving factor for the balancing behavior. In other words, Walt suggest that states balance against threat, rather than against power. As such, Walt presents another theory of alliance: the balance of threat. Therefore, the correct option is C.

The 20th century also witnessed the formation of several alliances. During the First World War, the Central Powers included Germany, AustriaHungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. They fought against the Entente Powers of the Russian Empire, the British Empire, France, Italy, Serbia, Romania, and Portugal. During the Second World War, while the Axis Powers included Germany, Japan, Italy, Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria, the Allies consisted of the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China, Poland, France, and Yugoslavia. The Cold War was also characterized by military-political alliances. In fact NATO and the Warsaw Pact were ideologicallybased alliances of the twentieth century. Therefore, the correct option is E.

The Cold War is assumed to have begun with the famous Iron Curtain speech by Winston Churchill on March 5, 1946. Churchill said that “From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent.” The Cold War lasted more than four decades and ended with the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 . The most distinctive feature of the Cold War was the ideological struggle between the liberal Western Alliance and the socialist Eastern Alliance. The Western-Alliance nations came together under the NATO umbrella, whereas the Eastern Alliance formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Although the Warsaw Pact dissolved in 1991, NATO still survives and performs critical security functions. Therefore, the correct option is C.

NATO is an Alliance that consists of 29 independent member countries. Member states are the states that party to the NATO Treaty. The Twelve original members of the Alliance that founded the organization in 1949 are as follows: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

The other member countries that later joined the alliance are as follows: Greece and Turkey (1952), Germany (1955), Spain (1982), the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland (1999), Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia (2004), Albania and Croatia (2009), and Montenegro (2017).

Therefore, the correct option is D.

The concept of human security was first used in the 1994 Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) as “safety from chronic threats such as hunger, disease and repression, and protection from sudden and harmful disruptions in the patterns of daily life whether in homes, in jobs, or in communities.” Therefore, the correct option is A.

The humanitarian conception is an extension of the state responsibility approach to protect citizens based on the natural rights conception of human rights because it depends on “the right to intervene” or “duty to intervene” of the international community in countries with gross human rights violations. Even if this contradicts with the core principles of international relations (such as the state sovereignty, the prohibition of use of force against the territorial integrity, and non-interference in the domestic affairs of a sovereign country), the security of the state does not automatically mean the security of its citizens. Therefore, the correct option is D.

There are some general characteristics of human security. First, human security has become a concern of everyone; thus, it is universal. Second, the interdependent character of human security threats necessitates the cooperation of states in security issues. Third, the human security approach attaches greater importance to early prevention than intervention because the cost of late intervention may be very high. Finally, the individual-centered approach of human security is undisputable. Therefore, the correct option is B.

The Cold War was the rivalry between the United States of America and the Soviet Union as well as between their respective allies from the end of the Second World War to 1989. This rivalry was based on the ideological difference between the two superpowers. It never escalated into an actual conflict; it was rather based on the use of political, economic, bureaucratic, and propaganda tools despite the existence of proxy wars such as the Korean War (1950-1953), the Vietnam War (1955-1975), and the SovietAfghan War (1979-1989). The Cold War came to an end with the collapse of Communist bloc in 1989 and the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Security Dilemma is a situation in which actions taken by a state to increase its own security cause reactions from other states, which in turn lead to a decrease rather than an increase in the original state’s security. Therefore, the correct option is C.

The Non-Aligned Movement is an organization created by 29 Asian and African former colonial countries in Bandung/Indonesia in 1955. All these countries strived to follow an independent foreign policy from both NATO and the Warsaw Pact and supported the independence movements. They followed an agenda for economic development, disarmament, and economic inequality between countries. Therefore, the correct option is D.

After the publication of this report, the UN requested a final report for human security from the Commission on Human Security. The Commission specified the priorities of human security as follows:
• Protecting people in violent conflict;
• Protecting people from the proliferation of arms;
• Supporting the human security of people on the move;
• Establishing human security transition funds for post-conflict situations;
• Encouraging fair trade and markets to benefit the extreme poor;
• Providing minimum living standards everywhere;
• According high priority to universal access to basic health care;
• Developing an efficient and equitable global system for patent rights;
• Empowering all people with universal basic education, through much stronger global and national efforts;
• Clarifying the need for a global human identity while respecting the freedom of individuals to have diverse identities and affiliations.

Therefore, the correct option is A.

A key concept in Homer-Dixon’s work on scarcity-induced environmental conflict is the “resource capture,” the idea that “environmental scarcity encourages powerful groups to capture valuable environmental resources and prompts marginal groups to migrate to ecologically sensitive areas. These two processes in turn reinforce environmental scarcity and raise potential for social instability. Therefore, the correct option is D.

Kyoto Protocol (1997): is the main international treaty on global warming, which entered into effect in 2005 and mandates cuts in carbon emissions in 2008–2012. Almost all the world’s major countries, except the United States, are participants. Therefore, the correct option is A.

THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS, 2000

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs or MDG 8) are a long -and medium- term (to be achieved by 2015) development agenda approved by the UN General Assembly in December 2000. Their purpose was to inject renewed urgency into global development efforts by establishing challenging targets in each of the key human development areas.
Goal 1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Targets: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than one dollar a day; and halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger.
Goal 2 Achieve universal primary education Target: Ensure that by 2015, children everywhere – boys and girls – will be able to complete primary schooling.
Goal 3 Promote gender equality and empower women Target: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary schools by 2005, and all levels of education by 2015.
Goal 4 Reduce child mortality Target: Reduce by two-thirds (1990–2015) the under-5 mortality rate.
Goal 5 Improve maternal health Target: Reduce by three-quarters (1990–2015) the maternal morbidity ratio.
Goal 6 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Targets: Halt and begin to reverse spread of HIV/AIDS by 2015, and the incidence of malaria and other diseases.
Goal 7 Ensure environmental sustainability Targets: Integrate sustainable development principles; halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water; achieve a significant improvement in the lives of 100 million slum dwellers by 2020.
Goal 8 Develop a global partnership for development Targets: Further develop a rule-based non-discriminatory financial and trading system; address needs of least developed countries, small island and landlocked states; make debt sustainable; employment for youths; access to medicines; share benefits of new information and communications technologies.

Therefore, the correct option is E.

British scholar Susan Strange (1996) offers Structural Power Theory and defines it as “the power to decide how things shall be done, the power to shape frameworks within which states relate to one another, relate to people or relate to corporate enterprises”. She distinguishes between four primary power structures:

The correct answer is D.