ULUSLARARASI GÜVENLİK - Deneme Sınavı - 9

League of Nations has not been successful to prevent aggression and proved its own incompetency with the eruption of the 2nd World War.

The UN Secretary-General who invented the concept of peacekeeping is Dag Hammarskjöld. The correct answer is E.

Upon the Suez Crisis, the UN Emergency Force (UNEF-I) was launched by the UN General Assembly in 1956. The correct answer is A.

The following two missions were the peace enforcement missions where the UN troops had to physically fight: 1) The UN Operation in Congo (UNOC): started on July 14, 1960 with the Security Council Resolution 143 and continued until June 1964; 2) The UN Operation in Somali (UNOSOM II): started on March 26, 1993 with the Security Council Resolution 814 and continued until March 1995 under the leadership of the USA. The correct answer is B.

According to Ajaj, humanitarian intervention refers to the short-term use of force to exclusively re-establish respect for human rights. The correct answer is B.

The International Criminal Court is a permanent international court that was established by the Rome Statute.

5 permanent members of the UN Security Council are the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom. The correct answer is C.

Globalization and interdependence are the two central components that have changed the nature of power as well as our understanding of security in four major ways.

First, the dynamics of international security have changed the power distribution across the board. Nowadays not only the United States but also the Russian Federation, the People’s Republic of China, and the European Union are considered “big powers.”

Second, the increase in the volume of global trade, international communication and travel as well as the emergence of the Industry 4.0 have created an integrated global economy and made it necessary to take into account some new actors, means, and perspectives for sustaining and promoting international security.

Third, globalization and interdependence may lead to a butterfly effect in that local problems may turn into major international threats and challenges that would affect regional and global security.

Finally, because there is no one institution that would act as a global government and create a just global system, globalization, in fact, functions in a way to increase international anarchy and complexity. This, in turn, heightens security concerns and calls for a creative problem-solving approach.

International security studies (ISS) is a sub-field of International Relations (IR). It has evolved from the disciplines of War Studies, Military History, and Geopolitics after the Second World War.

It is possible to classify ISS under two main approaches: Traditionalist and Critical. Militaryoriented and state-centered conception of Security Studies (SS) and Peace Research are classified under the traditionalist approach whereas the Feminist Security Studies, the Copenhagen School, Poststructuralism, and Constructivist Security Studies under the Critical approach.

Buzan distinguished five models of security due to newly emerging diversity of perceived threats:
1. Military security concerns itself with the two-level interplay of the armed offensive and defensive capabilities of states and state’s perceptions of each other’s intentions,
2. Political security focuses on the organizational stability of states, systems of government, and ideologies that give them legitimacy,
3. Economic security emphasizes on prioritazing access to resources, finance, and markets necessary to sustain acceptable levels of welfare and state power,
4. Societal security concerns itself with the ability of societies to reproduce their traditional patterns of language, culture, association, religious and national identities and customs within acceptable conditions for evolution,
5. Environmental security deals with the maintenance of local and planetary biosphere as well as space in order to ensure continued existence of all human beings (Buzan, 1999: 433).

Irregular warfare is a violent struggle among states and non-state actors
for legitimacy and influence over the relevant populations.

Asymmetrical warfare is defined as threats outside the range of conventional warfare and attacks that are difficult to respond to in kind such as suicide bombings.

Psychological warfare is planned psychological activities designed to influence behavior, perceptions, and attitudes affecting the achievement of political and military objectives.

Information warfare is a type of battle for the control of the digital space involving the whole society. The basic strategies of Information Warfare are to deny access to information, disrupt/ destroy information, steal data and manipulate data to change its context or its perception.

Cyber warfare is an extension of policy by actions taken in cyberspace state or non-state actors that either is conducted in response to a perceived threat against a nation’s security or constitute a serious threat to a nation’s security. It occurs when nationstate engages in cyber operations and use the Internet as a new battlefield in conflict.

Hybrid warfare combines both conventional (state-tostate) and irregular warfare (terrorism, insurgency, and counterterrorism). Nano-warfare is a newly emerging field in strategy to use nanotechnologies and molecular manufacturing for future horrifically effective weapons.

Irregular warfare is a violent struggle among states and non-state actors
for legitimacy and influence over the relevant populations.

Asymmetrical warfare is defined as threats outside the range of conventional warfare and attacks that are difficult to respond to in kind such as suicide bombings.

Psychological warfare is planned psychological activities designed to influence behavior, perceptions, and attitudes affecting the achievement of political and military objectives.

Information warfare is a type of battle for the control of the digital space involving the whole society. The basic strategies of Information Warfare are to deny access to information, disrupt/ destroy information, steal data and manipulate data to change its context or its perception.

Cyber warfare is an extension of policy by actions taken in cyberspace state or non-state actors that either is conducted in response to a perceived threat against a nation’s security or constitute a serious threat to a nation’s security. It occurs when nationstate engages in cyber operations and use the Internet as a new battlefield in conflict.

Hybrid warfare combines both conventional (state-tostate) and irregular warfare (terrorism, insurgency, and counterterrorism). Nano-warfare is a newly emerging field in strategy to use nanotechnologies and molecular manufacturing for future horrifically effective weapons.

It is possible to explain, analyze and understand the international security in six levels:
• Individual level: Security for the individual.
• Societal level: Security for the social group, i.e. ethnic, national, religious, linguistic, or community groups.
• National level: Security for the state or nation.
• Regional level: Security for the region, that is, a coherent security region.
• International level: Security for the international society, the society of nations, and most states in the world.
• Global level: Security for the planet Earth and space (Heurlin and Kristensen, 2010: 69).

The interveners have the following options:

1. Preventive diplomacy

2. Conflict management or peacekeeping

3. Peacemaking

4. Peacebuilding or conflict transformation

Conflict dynamic is related to the phasing of conflict, paradigmatic changes, and different phases in the course of violence/warfare:
1. Different periods of a conflict: Violence escalates and de-escalates and is sometimes interrupted by a period of peace.
2. Changes of intensity: The route of violence, strategies, and availability of weapons can be changed.
3. Paradigmatic changes: Objectives may change. New alliances, fall of the regime, and political shifts can happen
4. Cross-cultural and inter-cultural component: Conflict handling can be affected by high-context and low-context cultural environment (Scherrer, 2002: 13).

Below are some examples of main threats of certain types of security;

Economic Security - Persistent poverty.

Food Security -Hunger, famine.

Health Security - Deadly infectious disease, unsafe food, malnutrition, lack  of access to basic health care.

Environmental Security - Environmental degradation, resource depletion, natural disasters, pollution.

Personal Security - Physical violence, crime, terrorism, domestic violence, child labor.

Community Security - Inter-ethnic, religious, and other identity-based tensions.

Political Security - Political repression, human rights abuses. Source: UN Trust Fund for Human Security, 2009, p. 7

Critical Security Studies (CSS) is an umbrella term for a range of approaches which seek to challenge the orthodoxy of ‘traditional’ security studies. Critical approaches apply post-positivist perspectives such as critical theory and post-structuralism and change the referent object of security.

Ole Waever and Barry Buzan along with other colleagues at the Copenhagen Peace Research Institute (COPRI) have introduced the concept of ‘securitization’ which emphasizes the role of threat discourses in the social construction of security.

Realism defines international relations in terms of power. The exercise of power by states toward each other is called power politics (Pevehouse and Goldstein, 2014). There are two main approaches of realism: classical realism that considers power politics in terms of egoism and neorealism, or structural realism, that explains power politics in terms of anarchy (Heywood, 2011).