ULUSLARARASI GÜVENLİK - Deneme Sınavı - 8

Morgenthau outlines the “six principles of political realism” as follows:
• Politics is governed by objective laws which have their root in human nature.
• The key to understanding international politics is the concept of interest defined in terms of power.
• The forms and nature of state power will vary in time, place and context but the concept of interest remains consistent.
• Universal moral principles do not guide state behavior, although this does not rule out an awareness of the moral significance of political action.
• Moral aspirations are specific to a particular nation; there is no universally agreed set of moral principles.
• The political sphere is autonomous (Heywood, 2011).

Structural realism emphasizes four core elements of international politics:
• States are seen as rational actors and by far the most important actors in the international system.
• The international system is anarchic; there is no international authority that can prevent the use of force between states.
• Each state cannot take its security for granted and thus, is responsibleforensuring its own survival, most notably through the nurturing of material capabilities.
• The balance of power (the formation of alliances with certain states to counter the threat of other states) is the defining mechanism that regulates the international system and explains war and peace.

Self-help refers to a state’s reliance on its own capacities and resources, rather than external support, to ensure security and survival.

Security dilemma arises from the fact that  a build-up of military capacity for defensive
reasons by one state is always liable to be interpreted as aggressive by other states.

The concept of relative gains refers to the position of states in relation to one another, reflected in the distribution of benefits and capabilities between and amongst them.

Offensive realism is a form of structural realism that portrays states as ‘power maximizers’, as there is no limit to their desire to control the international
environment.

Defensive realism is a form of structural realism that views states as ‘security maximizers’, placing the desire to avoid attack above a bid for World power

British scholar Susan Strange (1996) offers Structural Power Thoeory and defines it as “the power to decide how things shall be done, the power to shape frameworks within which states relate to one another, relate to people or relate to corporate enterprises”. She distinguishes between four primary power structures:
• The knowledge structure, which influences actor’s beliefs, ideas or perceptions;
• The financial structure, which controls access to credit or investment;
• The security structure, which shapes defence and strategic issues;
• The production structure, which affects economic development and prosperity.

Referent Object: It is an object that is taken as the focus for analysis in security studies. As to this concept, there are two main approaches to the security: state-centric security (the state is the referent object) and human-centric approach (human is the referent object).

Traditional Security Studies: It refers to Realist, Liberal, Peace Studies and Strategic Studies perspectives in the study of security. All of them prioritize the state as the referent object of security and focus on military threats to the security of the state.

Broadening: The broadening security agenda refers to Barry Buzan’s sectoral analysis that the security agenda includes not only military sector issues but also political, economic, societal and environmental issues.

Deepening: The state is not only the referent object of security but it also includes human individuals, institutions and groups.

Positivism: It claims that social sciences can be built upon the same model as natural sciences. Scientific principles such as objectivity, verification/falsification, and generalization can adapt to the study of society.

Post-Positivism: It rejects the idea that it is possible to analyze the natural world and the social world in the same way. There is no objective view (Peoples and Vaughan-Williams, 2010:4).

Security regions can be regarded as miniature systems of international politics where all International Relations theories can be applied such as alliance theory, polarity, and balance of power etc. A regional security complex is is based on four components as follows:
1. Regional boundaries, which differentiate itself from its neighbors.
2. Regional anarchical system, which consists of two or three independents states
3. Power differences among countries in the region,
4. The patterns of amity and enmity (Buzan and Waever, 2003: 53).

Military Sector refers to the two-level interplay between the armed offensive capacity and defensive capabilities of states and their perceptions of each other’s intentions. It is about relationships of forceful coercion. Here the referent object can be states.

Political Sector means the regime type of states and their ideologies that provide them with legitimacy and authority. It is related to authority, governing status and recognition. In this sector, the referent object can be national sovereignty or an ideology. 

Economical Sector shows the welfare of the state and its access to natural resources and financial markets. It concerns trade, production, and finance. Its referent object refers to national economies.

Societal Sector relates to national identity, sustainable culture, customs, and religion. It is about relationships of collective identity. The referent object here is collective identities.

Environmental Sector includes the maintenance of the planetary biosphere. It refers to the relationship between human activity and planetary biosphere. Its referent object is species or habitats (Buzan, Waever, and Wilde, 1998: 8)

During the 1990s, intervention took places in “no-fly zones” in Iraq, Somalia, Bosnia, Sierra Leone, East Timor, and Kosovo. In Syria, there was no intervention. The correct answer is A.

Sovereignty means a central governing authority within a specified geographical territory.

Responsibility to protect was endorsed at the 2005 UN World Summit.

Humanitarian intervention must lack the consent of the government of the target state. The answer is B.

Peacemaking includes measures to address ongoing conflicts and usually comprises diplomatic action and mediation to bring hostile parties to a negotiated agreement.

Peacekeeping comprises the basic principles which are impartiality; consent of the parties; non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate.

The Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900 is an example to give for the ancestors of peace operations before the League of Nations.

The UN Transitional Administration in East Timor is an example of the fourth generation peacebuilding.

Peacebuilding was coined by Boutros Ghali in his “An Agenda for Peace” report released in 1992.

Peace enforcement activities include carrying out international sanctions against the opposing sides; isolating the conflict zones and preventing penetration of armed groups into these areas; delivering air or missile strikes against the groups refusing the agreement; disarming and eradicating armed formations which refuse to end armed fighting. The answer is E.

Globalization and interdependence are the two central components that have changed the nature of power as well as our understanding of security in four major ways. First, the dynamics of international security have changed the power distribution across the board. Nowadays not only the United States but also the Russian Federation, the People’s Republic of China, and the European Union are considered “big powers.” Second, the increase in the volume of global trade, international communication and travel as well as the emergence of the Industry 4.0 have created an integrated global economy and made it necessary to take into account some new actors, means, and perspectives for sustaining and promoting international security. Third, globalization and interdependence may lead to a butterfly effect in that local problems may turn into major international threats and challenges that would affect regional and global security. Finally, because there is no one institution that would act as a global government and create a just global system, globalization, in fact, functions in a way to increase international anarchy and complexity. This, in turn, heightens security concerns and calls for a creative problem-solving approach.

ISS is defined as “the study of the threat, use, and control of military force.” It investigates how conditions make the use of force more likely and how the use of force affects individuals, states, and societies. It addresses the specific policies that states embrace in order to prepare for, prevent, or engage in war (Walt, 1991: 212). The nation-state is the referent object of security.

It is possible to classify ISS under two main approaches: Traditionalist and Critical. Military-oriented and state-centered conception of Security Studies (SS) and Peace Research are classified under the traditionalist approach whereas the Feminist Security Studies, the Copenhagen School, Post-structuralism, and Constructivist Security Studies under the Critical approach (Buzan and Hansen, 2009: 3).