TÜRKÇE SES VE BİÇİM BİLGİSİ

Turkish has a number of means to form new words, but due to its agglutinativemorphology, derivation is one that is used most productively Words having new meanings can be formed  by adding derivational affixes to the stem. Parlak is made from parlamak by adding the derivational suffix –k. D is the correct answer.

A genuinely Turkish means of creating new lexical items is realized by compounding two free morphemes from different or same word classes to express a single meaning. One type of compound is the nominal compound which allows NOUN NOUN pairings. The most common type is formed by a bare noun followed by another noun marked with the third person possessive morpheme: NOUN NOUN+3rd POSS. Some examples are çocuk sandalyesi, fizik dersi, okul çantası, çalışma masası. This child’s use of  tren evi is similar to these examples. D is the correct answer.

Sounds of the nature inspire creation of new words in all languages calledonomatopoeic words. These words are imitative of natural sounds, so they reflect the meanings that they represent. Verbs, adjectives and adverbs can be created from the so called noises of the nature by several word formation processes such as affixation: hırıldamak, cıvıldamak, şırıldamak; compounding, çıt kırıldım, şıp sevdi; and reduplication: hırıl hırıl, şırıl şırıl, cıvıl, cıvıl. B is the correct answer.

Conversion allows a functional shift from one word class to another without any other addition or reduction in the word. Likewise, pamuk is used as a noun and as an adjective in the given examples with no addition or reduction in the form of the word. E is the correct answer.

Borrowing is a way of adding new words to a language by borrowing them from other languages through which Turkish is largely expanded. Nomofobi is a Word borrowed from English. C is the correct answer.

In one type of semantic change, a word’s meaning may lose some of its semantic content. For example, the verb dirilmek was used to mean both ‘to live’ and ‘to resurrect’ in Old Turkish. It seems that its meaning has now been narrowed down to the latter only. Likewise, yem, which used to mean ‘food’ in general, is now used as referring to animal food only. A is the correct answer.

Metaphorical Extension: Another method of word formation is metaphor: using an existing word to refer to an object with similar properties of its referent. This process can be considered to be one type of semantic change in that words do not undergo any morphological modification, but rather they adopt new meanings or new uses for the already existing ones. The output is not a completely new word, but a word with a new semantic interpretation. For example, çeşme in Turkish is a word of Persian origin. It is derived with the suffix -a from the stem çaşm which means eye. In this expression, the source of water is viewed as the human organ for seeing (Tietze, 2002: 499). Just like teardrops falling down from an eye, water falls down from a tap. The way some humanly characterizations are used to describe nature also constitues an example of metaphorical extension: İstanbul [Boğaz]ı, dağın [etek]leri, nehrin karşı [yaka]sı. The semantics of these words associated with human body parts is extended to describe geographical locations. Likewise, the semantic features of the word melek is associated with those of the mother in the given example. E is the correct answer.

Clipping is a reduction process that shortens a long word. C is the correct answer.

It is possible to form a new word by using two word formation processes: compounding and clipping. The outcome is a blend. For example, the word Avrasya was created by first clipping the first part of the word Avrupa and then combining it with the word Asya into a new blend: Avr(upa) + Asya > Avrasya. In blending, the meaning of the new Word is different from the component words. A is the correct answer.

When a word is reduced to the initial letters of the component words, it forms an acronym. Some examples are: YÖK for Yüksek Öğretim Kurumu, TC for Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, ODTÜ for Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi, DGM for Devlet Güvenlik Mahkemesi, ABD for Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, KDV for Katma Değer Vergisi, KPDS for Kamu Personeli Dil Sınavı. AKM is produced in the same way from Atatürk Kültür Merkezi. B is the correct answer.

No matter how they appear, such changes provide linguists a useful source displaying the means applied to create new words, or more technically neologisms, in a language.

Sayfa 81 Tablo 6.1 Examples of Derivation

Phonologically, reduplication in Turkish allows sound alternations to form rhyming pairs. One example is consonant alternation: s>f as in s›k› f›k›, k>s as in kaba saba, s>p as in sus pus1. Another example is the internal vowel alternation as in çar çur, hart hurt, zart zurt. These words are called mimetic words since they are created by imitating the stem.

The new meanings are fairly transparent in these compounds. That is, the
meaning of the whole derive from the sum of its parts. Such compounds are called
endocentric compounds. However, some are opaque in their meaning. Both
components may lose their individual meanings when combined into a single
lexical item. For example, akbaba is not a kind of baba, nor han›meli is a kind of
el. In their new forms, they gain meanings distinct from those of their components’
to describe a kind of bird and a kind of plant respectively. These are called
exocentric compounds (Wardhaugh, 1995: 232).

Other examples of conversion can be formed by using nouns as
adjectives: pamuk, gümüfl, kömür; aorist third person singular verbs as nouns:
gelir, gider, okur, çıkar, tükenmez, çıkmaz.

A special type of borrowing is called loan-translation, or calque. This word
formation process allows word-for-word translations of new words into another
language. For example, katma de¤er vergisi is the Turkish translation of value
added tax. Other examples are do¤algaz ‘natural gas’, bilgi toplumu ‘information
society’, uzaktan kumanda ‘remote control’, ekran koruyucu ‘screen saver’, insan
haklar› ‘human rights’, toplam kalite ‘total quality’, k›z arkadafl ‘girl friend’.

Metaphorical Extension
Another method of word formation is metaphor: using an existing word to refer
to an object with similar properties of its referent. This process can be considered
to be one type of semantic change in that words do not undergo any morphological
modification, but rather they adopt new meanings or new uses for the already
existing ones. The output is not a completely new word, but a word with a new
semantic interpretation. For example, çeflme in Turkish is a word of Persian origin.
It is derived with the suffix -a from the stem çaflm which means eye. In this
expression, the source of water is viewed as the human organ for seeing (Tietze,
2002: 499). Just like teardrops falling down from an eye, water falls down from a
tap. The way some humanly characterizations are used to describe nature also
constitues an example of metaphorical extension: İstanbul [Boğazı›, dağın [etek]leri,
nehrin karşı [yaka]sı. The semantics of these words associated with human body
parts is extended to describe geographical locations. These examples show that
language is flexible and creative enough to form new metaphorical extensions at
will as the need arises.

Blending
It is possible to form a new word by using two word formation processes:
compounding and clipping. The outcome is a blend. For example, the word
Avrasya was created by first clipping the first part of the word Avrupa and then
combining it with the word Asya into a new blend: Avr(upa) + Asya > Avrasya.

A distinction should be made between acronyms and abbreviations. The
latter is not spelled out as it is shortened; whereas the former is. For example, Sn
is an abbreviation and it is always pronounced in its long form as Say›n, but never
as *s(e) n(e).

sezeryan eponomy (the method by which Julius Caesar was born
(Tatter, 1986: 27)/borrowing (caesarean section)