TÜRK SİYASETİ

The administrative structure of the Ottoman State during its classic period, the administrators representing the ruler’s authority are located at the top layer of the stratification. These are soldiers, bureaucrats, and clergymen. The other major element of the stratification system consists of the rayah (reaya). The peasants, merchants, and artisans are the components that create this layer (İnalcık, 2009, p. 256). Within this stratification system, the soldiers are responsible for the protection of the land and undertake essential functions in the operation of the Ottoman economy. For example, Ottoman cavalry corps (sipahiler) are responsible for collecting soldiers in wartime and a certain amount of the products produced by the villagers in the name of tax and transferring them to the Center. Finally, the principal responsibility of the Ottoman administrative structure, which represented the authority of the sovereign, was to keep everyone’s position within the group and to accomplish the functions of the group. Hence, social mobility was kept to a minimum in this administrative structure. 

The correct answer is A.

Throughout the three centuries, from the 1300s until the 1600s, the Ottoman Empire was able to protect the status quo of the classical period without any significant obstacles. On the contrary, after the 1600s, it was impossible to maintain this order for various reasons. One of the main reasons is the disintegration of provincial order. When the land system, based on the production of small peasants and a subsistence economy began to be dissolved principally because of the corruption caused by the Sipahis, the control of the land was captured by the landlords and the Christian notables; and millions of peasants experienced harsh conditions. İnalcık argues that this is not an easy transformation, rather the fundamental reason causing the collapse of the empire (2011, p. 39). Considering that the fiscal balance of the state was largely achieved by the agricultural production of the peasants, it would not be hard to see what serious consequences it had when the timar (tımar) system was dissolved. In addition, we need to note that the development of new weapon technologies was another significant development that transformed the classical order and that diminished the importance of the timar holder in the system. The increasing trade of the Ottoman Empire with the West and its peripheralization as the requirement of the capitalization constitute another variable that dissolved the classical order. Accordingly, the influence of the Ottoman Empire in the world economy gradually lost its value with the loss of commercial significance of the Mediterranean and the Silk Road. Certainly, the financial burden caused by the long wars with Iran and Russia signifies another important factor. All of these reasons caused the disintegration of the classical Ottoman system.

The correct answer is E.

The disintegration of the classical order meant the loss of power for the Ottoman Empire socially and economically, politically and militarily. The defeats, particularly in the military field, were regarded as the biggest problem for the administrator classes, followed by the disintegration of the classical order. Accordingly, there are efforts to implement a series of reform initiatives first in the military field for the restoration of the traditional order. In this regard, during the reign of Selim III and Mahmud II, we observe that many reforms were put into practice. For instance, Selim III attempted to create a new army as an alternative to Janissaries (Yeniçeriler) and hence, he is the one to implement the first major reform initiatives in the military field.

The correct answer is C.

Here are some significant common points related to the Ottoman modernization. Firstly, reform initiatives were mainly launched in the military field. Despite the turnover of the administrative staff, the attempts to reform the military field never ended in the last century of the Ottoman Empire. In the last years of the Ottoman Empire, German experts continued the reform activities formerly initiated by some French experts. Secondly, the reform initiatives that were launched in the military field were implemented in other problematic areas. For example, initiatives to improve tax collection mechanisms in order to improve the financial system of the state were persistently sustained by each ruler. Several measures have been taken in this direction and the system has experienced a transformation in the direction of establishing a modern system of finance. Similarly, the administrative and legal system of the state continuously improved. Finally, we should not forget to mention that the measures taken in the education system continued for a while.

Doğru cevap D'dir.

On November 3, 1839, with the permission of Sultan Abdülmecid I (1839-1861), the Edict of Tanzimat was proclaimed by Mustafa Reşid Pasha. In its most general sense, the Edict of Tanzimat promised four basic reforms. The first of these is that the Edict guarantees the life, honor, and property of the subjects of the ruler. The second is the establishment of a regular taxation system that would replace the tax farming system. The third one is the compulsory military service. The latter signifies the promise of equality before the law for all the subjects, regardless of religion (Zürcher, 2010, p. 84).

The Edict of Tanzimat is the first comprehensive reform initiative for the solution of the “Eastern Question”.

Young Ottomans was a secret society established around the organization called “İttifak-ı Hamiyet”. These young people, customarily from prosperous families, fled to Europe after an unsuccessful attempt of coup d’état in 1867 and were reorganized under the name of “Young Ottomans Society” there (Tanör, 2006, p. 123). The critics about the implementations of the Tanzimat Era and the actors behind these practices (Mustafa Reşit, Ali and Fuat Pashas) brought together the peoples such as Namık Kemal, Şinasi, Ali Suavi, Ziya Pasha, Mustafa Fazıl Pasha, Sadık Rıfat Pasha, Agah Efendi, Reşad Bey, Mehmed Bey under the roof of the “Young Ottomans Society”.

The correct answer is B.

Mahmud Şevket Pasha, Ottoman soldier and statesman who, in 1909, suppressed a religious uprising, forced the subsequent deposition of Sultan Abdülhamid II, and served as grand vizier (chief minister) in 1913. Şevket graduated from the Cadet School in Constantinople as a staff captain in 1882. He served on the general staff of the Ministry of War, and in 1886 he joined a commission sent to Germany to supervise the manufacture of war matériel for the Ottoman army. On his return he was appointed director of the Inspection and Control Department, with the rank of general. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, which brought the Committee of Union and Progress to power, Şevket became commander of the 3rd Army at Salonika (Thessaloníki, now in Greece), in which capacity in 1909 he crushed a religious uprising against the Young Turk government, known as the 31st of March Incident, and deposed the sultan, who favoured a return to absolutism. He then became the inspector general of the first three army corps and minister of war, acquiring a position of great strength. In January 1913, when a group of army officers led by Enver Pasha overthrew the government of the Liberal Union Party and restored the Committee of Union and Progress to power, Şevket became grand vizier.

The correct answer is E.

TpCF is Turkey’s first opposition party.It was established under the leadership of Kazım Karabekir, Ali Fuat (Cebesoy) Pasha, Refet (Bele) Pasha, Rauf (Orbay) Bey and Adnan (Adıvar) Bey.It was founded on November 17, 1924.The party opposed statism in the economic policies and defended the liberal economy. Politically, the party focused on the enlargement of freedoms. Following the Sheikh Said Rebellion, TPCF was closed following the Takrir-i Sükun Law. 

The correct answer is C.

In 1930, there was a second attempt to adopt a multi-party democracy through the foundation of another opposition party. Nevertheless, the opposition party was not established in its own dynamics. At the time, Atatürk requested that Fethi Bey (former Prime Minister), who was the Paris embassy, establish an opposition party with a liberal program. Atatürk requested from his sister Makbule Hanım and some CHP deputies that they register as members of the new party. Atatürk promised the Liberal Republican Party (Serbest Cumhuriyet Fırkası-SCF) founders that he would be impartial against both parties as the President of the Republic.Hence, Fethi Bey established the party and a small number of deputies, most of whom were very close to Atatürk, registered in the new party. One of the founders of the party, like Fethi Bey, was Ahmet Ağaoğlu, who was recognized with his liberal views. Under the influence of these two founders, SCF adopted a liberal economic program, different from CHP’s approach that followed the statist policies. SCF produced a significant impact in a short time. A large number of citizens from different areas applied to the party for becoming a member.

The correct answer is C.

Bayar, Menderes, Koraltan, and Köprülü also declared that they established a new opposition party called Democrat Party (Demokrat Parti-DP).

The correct answer is D.

Starting its adventure as a beylic, Ottoman reign became a powerful empire particularly after the reign of Mehmed the Conqueror.

Selim III attempted to create a new army as an alternative to Janissaries (Yeniçeriler).

Consequently, the ayans became a highly effective power in the last decades of the 18th century. In this context, we can list Mehmet Ali Pasha, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha and Yanyali Ali Pasha in Egypt among the powerful ayans.

On November 3, 1839, with the permission of Sultan Abdülmecid I (1839-1861), the Edict of Tanzimat was proclaimed by Mustafa Reşid Pasha.

After the elections, the first Ottoman parliament (Meclis-i Mebusan) convened on March 19, 1877.

Hence, the military engineering school was opened in 1775 for the first time.

The events that were culminated in the 31 March Incident, were initiated by the conservatist Dervish Vahdedi, the owner of the Volkan newspaper.

In 1913 Enver Pasha became Minister of War, general, and pasha; in 1914, by marrying some Ottoman princes, he even acquired the title of Damad.

In February 1925, an armed uprising, known as “Sheikh Said Rebellion” started in Diyarbakır and Elazığ.

In 1927, Law for the Encouragement of Industry (Teşvik-i Sanayi Kanunu) was issued.