SOSYOLOJİYE GİRİŞ

Saint-Simon claimed that a positive science is necessary to analyze the problems that emerged during the industrial society phase following the French Revolution and based his ideas and actions on these arguments accordingly.

Auguste Comte  examines “society” within an evolutionist and positivist framework. Comte used the term “sociology” for the first time and established a tradition known as positivist sociology. 

-Comte’s works were partly inspired by the works of the thinkers of the Enlightenment; however, he was sometimes critical of these works. In fact, although he was influenced by the scientific approach of the Enlightenment, Comte was critical of the French Revolution and the Enlightenment philosophy,
which - he believed - triggered destructive radical changes in history.

Comte summarizes his ideas about this point of view in his well-known evolution theory known as “law of the three stages”, which he developed under the influence of the studies by Saint-Simon.

Durkheim adopted a point of view called functionalism and greatly contributed to the development of structural functionalism.

Durkheim, in his work titled The Division of Labour in Society writes about mechanic solidarity and organic solidarity depending on social division of labour. Accordingly:
a) Mechanical solidarity is observed in traditional societies where there is a simple division of labour based on resemblances. In this type of order and solidarity, collective consciousness and collective identity are more powerful and dominant than individual consciousness and identities.
b) Organic solidarity is observed in modern societies where there is a complex division of labour based on social differentiation.

Durkheim explains suicide through two independent variable; namely integration and regulation. The extreme or insufficient presence of these two variables in a society leads to suicides.

The ideas suggested by George Lukacs (1885-1971) and Antonio Gramsci (1891- 1937), who are among the most influential neo Marxist theoreticians and also known as Hegelian Marxists, are quite significant.

-Unlike traditional Marxists who emphasize economic structure, neo Marxist theories emphasize cultural and ideological superstructures of societies.

-Neo Marxists are not as optimistic as traditional Marxists about the fact that capitalism will inevitably disappear.

Symbolic interactionism is a sociological approach closely related to social psychology in American sociology. According to symbolic interactionism, society is the product of individuals’ symbolic interactions in social life. Despite the considerable contributions of C.H Cooley and W.I Thomas to the development of symbolic interactionism, George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) is considered to be the founder of this approach.

Postmodernism, like feminism, is critical to other approaches. Postmodernism is not only effective in sociology but also in art, music, literature, culture and social sciences. Postmodernism has developed as an opposition to modernism, which emerged in the 18th century during the enlightenment period and consists of ideas, values, and hypotheses that rely on technology, knowledge, and progress.

The most significant contribution of Saint-Simon to the development of sociology is the term industrial society, which successfully influenced both the radicals like Marx and conservative theoreticians like Comte at same time by reflecting both socialist and conservative point of views. Therefore, the correct option is C.

Just like Saint-Simon, Auguste Comte also examines “society” within an evolutionist and positivist framework. Saint-Simon contributed to the development of sociology with his studies, and Comte used the term “sociology” for the first time and established a tradition known as positivist sociology. Thus, he is agreed to be the founder of sociology by some researchers in the field. Therefore, the correct option is C.

Like Saint-Simon, Comte also tries to understand society from an evolutionary point of view. Comte summarizes his ideas about this point of view in his well-known evolution theory known as “law of the three stages”, which he developed under the influence of the studies by Saint-Simon. Accordingly, human thought and societies evolve through three basic stages:

a) Theological stage: In this stage, the human mind tries to explain everything through supernatural forces.

b) Metaphysical stage: In this stage, the human mind tries to explain all social and physical phenomena and events through abstract forces.

c) Positive stage: In this stage, the human mind finally tries to explain all phenomena and events scientifically (based on universal laws). According to Comte, in this stage, the human mind rejects supernatural and abstract forces due to positive sciences and tries to reveal existing relationships among observable phenomena and systematize these relationships within universal laws.

Therefore, the correct option is B.

Herbert Spencer of England contributed to the early development of sociology with his evolutionary social development theory. Inspired by Comte’s works and having an important role in early phases of British sociology, Spencer adapted the “natural selection” principle, which means the survival of the fittest, into social evolution and rejected any type of state interventions and social reforms that are supportive of disadvantaged individuals in social life. Therefore, the correct option is E.

“Surplus value” refers to the difference between the value produced by workers and the payment they are given. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Functionalism has an important place in modern sociology and was initially influenced by Durkheim’s works in sociology in the s19th century. In other words, functionalism adopted a positivist social science mentality while examining social life. Developed in the 20th century in social anthropology by A.R. Radcliffe-Brown (18811955) and Bronislaw Malinowski (1884-1942), functionalism was later improved in American sociology especially by Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton.
Functionalism deals with society as a system consisting of interrelated pieces. At this point, we should remember that Durkheim also explained society through its similarities to a biological entity. Functionalism in modern sociology deals with society as a system based on self-regulation, which implies that society has a natural intuition to protect itself and have a balance. In other words, self-regulation enables societies to maintain its balance and operations by regulating its institutions in response to changes in the environment. Therefore, the correct option is D.

The approach known as Frankfurt School or Critical Theory, which first appeared in 1923, had also an important influence in the development of Marxism after the death of Marx. It is also known that theorists such as Max Horkheimer (1895-1973), Erich Fromm (1900-1980), Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979) and T.W. Adorno (19031969) had great contributions to the development of critical theory until the 1970s. The contributions of Jurgen Habermas (1929-) in the 1980s brought a new dimension to critical theory. Therefore, the correct option is C.

For symbolic interactionism, meanings are not inherent in objects. The meanings / symbols that represent things emerge during the interactions in daily life among the members of a society. Meanings are not fixed and constant since they emerge during interaction process and they steadily change throughout social negotiation and interpretation processes. In this process, social order or social world is reconstructed every day. According to symbolic interactionists, social order develops as the outcome of interaction process. Therefore, the correct option is A.

According to Mead, self enables individuals to see themselves from the eyes of others during roletaking process. In other words, through the self, we can look at ourselves as if we are looking at an object from the outside. We can interpret how others see us or how we are seen by others. We become aware of others as well as ourselves. We can also interpret the feelings, intentions and expectations of others. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Unlike traditional Marxists who emphasize economic structure, neo Marxist theories emphasize cultural and ideological superstructures of societies. Therefore, the correct option is E.