SİYASAL DÜŞÜNCE - Deneme Sınavı - 5

The political writings of Al-Mâwardi may be seen as the sum of two distinct styles: 1. The format focusing on the individual ruler as a social figure, as well as his ideal characteristics and lessons learned from the preceding generations, the “Mirrors for Princes” format, which has an important role in the advising tradition in Islam (nasîhatnâmah); 2. The format in which the theory of the caliphate (imâmah) is put forward, which is more complicated in structure and focused on issues of government. Within the context of the first style, it is convenient to count The Advice to Kings (Nasîhat Al-Muluk); and within the second,Al-Ahkâm As-Sultâniyyah.

Al-Ahkâm As-Sultâniyyah is a work in which Al-Mâwardi theoretically and legally positioned the imâmah and the status of the caliph again within the boundaries of the shari‘ah. It had set limits for the power of the caliph, too, via strict requirements and demands for religious and secular accountability; and this really had been extraordinary given the circumstances of the place and time Al-Mâwardi had lived.

The foundations of politics had largely been seen as ethical, especially under the code of Islamic Law (shari‘ah), since the Ancient Greek legacy were being transferred to the Islamic intellectual background. However, the uprise of theology in the 11th century, and major attacks on the philosophical legacy of Al-Fârâbî and Avicenna as “Philosophers” and accusations of heresy by the Ash‘arite theologians-especially by Abu Hamid Muhammad Al-Ghazâlî, had the strongest reaction from Ibn Rushd (Averroës) of Cordoba, Andalus in the 12th century.

The characteristics that should be possessed by the ruler/Imam/Caliph, or by the philosopher-king, on Averroës’ view, are as follows:

1. Love of knowledge and the aptitude to acquire theoretical sciences and teach them,

2. Good retention-as a prerequisite for learning,

3. Love of learning,

4. Love of truth and hatred of falsehood,

5. Contempt for sensual pleasures,

6. Aversion to amassing wealth (as well as desire for wealth),

7. Magnanimity,

8. Courage,

9. Resolve to pursue on his own for what is good or beautiful,

10. Eloquence/facility in expressing thoughts,

11. Ability to light quickly on the middle term

Coming to the relation between ethics and politics, Averroës evaluates these two as two parts of the same science. The state, on his view, was the ground which provided the necessary conditions for pursuing a good life. In order to make room for the good of everyone, the ruler had to inculcate virtue in the souls of citizens; and for performing this duty, according to Averroës, the ruler has two choices as he had thoroughly elaborated in Fasl al-Maqâl: 1. Persuasion, 2. Coercion.

Ibn Khaldûn’s thought was organized in his magnum opus, namely, The Muqaddimah. It is known to us through his Muqaddimah and his autobiography-namely Et-Tâ’rîf (bî-Ibn Khaldun Wa Rıhletûhu Garban ve Sharkan) that Ibn Khaldûn’s level of education, motivation for further learning, as well as his intellectual capabilities, are really high. When his experience as a diplomat, jurist, advisor and vizier for more than 40 years is added to the equation, the sum is a multidirectional analysis of utmost significance, which transcends his lifetime and gives rise to a philosophical evaluation of history-both as a discipline, and as a realm of existence.

It could be argued that a majority of the literature on political philosophy in the Islamic world is based on the relations between ethics and politics, as well as idealized criteria for rulers- e.g. philosopher and/or prophet-kings (modelled on the personality of Muhammad the prophet).

Al-Farabi argues that ultimate happiness is a state associated with afterlife but this ultimate happiness is attained by active intellect – thinking and reasoning.

Avicenna believes that the prophet acquires knowledge but this acquisition “is not an uncritical reception [of this knowledge] merely on authority, but rather occurs in an order which includes the middle terms (reasoning). For beliefs accepted on authority concerning those things which are known only through their causes possess no intellectual certainty.

Those who elect the caliph must possess all of the qualities given in I to III.

Al-Mawardi lists all of the above except (a) as qualities a caliph-to-be must possess.

A caliph should not have a desire for wealth.

All except (a) are in agreement with Averroes’ beliefs.

Ibn Khaldûn argues that “what is subject to life span is the sedentary culture as the product of ‘umrân, rather than ‘umrân itself."

In The Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldûn states that “development could not be provided without justice” and that wealth, which is necessary for the survival of people, cannot be acquired in the absence of development.

In The Muqaddimah, one of the meanings ‘umrân includes is “to be settled with, as humans and animals with regard to the place itself.”

According to political ideas in the Bible concerning obedience, The kingship of King David is a model (although David also often sinned).

Despite the fact that Christianity did not condemn any property holding, and that medieval political writers had seen property as natural and right and demanded respect for it, Christianity seemed to suggest a type of voluntary poverty, and a type of sharing goods which might be related with communism. The early Christian community in Jerusalem seemed to be united towards this as a social ideal, which made them share a single heart and a soul (Kilcullen-Robinson 2017: 5).

The Christian theologians of late antiquity are referred to as the Fathers of the Church. The most influential of them in medieval Europe was Augustine; others included Ambrose, Cyprian, and Gregory (ibid). Many of the Fathers were influenced by the Platonism and Stoicism, as every educated person became acquainted with in the ancient world.

Eschaton is a theological term, meaning the final event in the divine plan; the end of the world. It stems from the Greek word eskhatos, meaning “the last”.