SİYASAL DÜŞÜNCE - Deneme Sınavı - 4

In Augustine’s philosophy, it is also possible to point out that the peace of all things lies in the tranquillity of order, and order is the disposition of equal and unequal things in such a way as to give to each its proper place.

Most of the political writers of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were involved in controversy about the extent and limits (or absence of limits) of papal authority; and, this situation made room for the distinction between secular and sacred authorities as well as for the quest for a secular order; the examples of which are to be found in the texts of Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham.

On natural law and other kinds of law Aquinas again follows the tradition of civil and canon law going back to the Roman Stoics, instead of Aristotle. He distinguishes divine law (eternal and positive) from human law, and among human laws he distinguishes natural law from the law of nations and civil law. Law is concerned with direction to the common good, which belongs to the whole people.

John of Salisbury is aware of the difference between potentiality and actuality, and pushes forward voluntariness as the precondition for a potential provided by nature to become actual, as regards the social issues.

John of Paris’ assumption that original appropriation is by individuals, and his idea that individuals acquire property by “labour and industry” (86, 103), seem to have a lot in common with Locke’s theory of property. However, John of Paris indicates that individuals acquire property under human law, which is the traditional view among medieval theologians, following Augustine. Though property is acquired under human law, it is acquired by individuals, not directly by rulers.

The term “Fall” refers in Ockhamin common with the Christian tradition-to the situation of human beings sent to earth by God due to the original sin (that of Adam’s).

It is a presupposition without any further discussion, too, that the medieval thought includes the “prescholastic”, “scholastic” and “late scholastic” periods.

Political ideas in the Bible concerning obedience might be summarised as follows:

Christianity is agreed to be indifferent to matters of slavery; which is also compatible with the Ancient Greek thought. The following quotations from the different parts of The New Testament show that slavery is not considered a big social problem in the eyes of Christianity. Moreover, Christianity advises slaves to be obedient to their masters, regardless of whether they are good or evil: However, there are also verses that refer to the equality and unity of all human beings-around the personality of Jesus Christ, which leads us to thinking that the social order making room for slavery is only a worldly illusion. On the basis of these quotations from the primary source of Christianity, it is possible to argue that even religions-including the monotheistic were inadequate in changing the socio-economic circumstances of the time they emerged. So, even the apostles of Jesus Christ did not have enough courage and confidence to forbid and/or to stand against slavery although Christianity is quite often advertised as “the religion of free will/freedom”.

Despite the fact that Christianity did not condemn any property holding, and that medieval political writers had seen property as natural and right and demanded respect for it, Christianity seemed to suggest a type of voluntary poverty, and a type of sharing goods which might be related with communism. The early Christian community in Jerusalem seemed to be united towards this as a social ideal, which made them share a single heart and a soul (Kilcullen-Robinson 2017: 5). Following the ideals of early Christianity on voluntary poverty, the leading institutions of medieval Europe included monasticism and other forms of religious life, which praise poverty and communal living, instead of saving and claiming property (Kilcullen-Robinson 2017: 5).

It is a common belief among the Medieval Christians that Jesus Christ was a king. However, Jesus himself is believed to have said: “My kingdom is not of this world” (John 18: 36), and he seemed to recommend obedience to the Roman Emperor: “Render therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s; and to God, the things that are God’s” (Matthew 22: 21).These all lead us to thinking that none of Christ’s followers would have power over the others: “…You know that the princes of the Gentiles lord it over them; and they that are the greater, exercise power upon them. It shall not be so among you…” (Matthew 20: 25-26). “…Be not you called rabbi. For one is your master, and all you are brethren. And call none your father upon earth: for one is your father, who is in heaven. Neither be ye called masters: for one is your master, Christ…” (Matthew 23: 8-10). Despite these texts, the clergy accepted titles of honour and claimed authority and power. Worse than that, the Church saw itself as Christ’s kingdom on earth, and claimed a share in Christ’s power. Paul’s writings, in some sense, might be claimed to serve as a justification for the Church to do so: “…For what have I to do to judge them that are without? Do not you judge them that are within? For them that are without, God will judge, … (1 Corinthians 5: 12-13)”, was usually taken to imply that the Church has no jurisdiction over non-Christians (“them that are without” means outside the Church). However, the general history of civilisations is full of counter examples whereas the history of thought provides us with the opportunity to observe the gradual increase in the reference to the fullness of Papal power in the later medieval political writings. Therefore, it is possible to argue that The Church-as the fundamental institution-had characterised Christianity in a way that Jesus himself was unable to foresee.

The Christian theologians of late antiquity are referred to as the Fathers of the Church (Kilcullen- Robinson 2017: 6). The most influential of them in medieval Europe was Augustine; others included Ambrose, Cyprian, and Gregory (ibid). Many of the Fathers were influenced by the Platonism and Stoicism, as every educated person became acquainted with in the ancient world. Augustine, who was particularly influenced by Neoplatonism, especially by Plotinus, could be seen as a milestone on the path from The Fathers of the Church to early scholastics (ibid). Augustine’s major work, The City of God (De Civitate Dei) will be the object of focus under this title because it is a work whose influence is not limited to that of medieval political thought.

Eschaton is a theological term, meaning the final event in the divine plan; the end of the world. It stems from the Greek word eskhatos, meaning “the last”

Canon law (ius canonicum) refers to the body of laws made within certain Christian churches (Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, independent churches of Eastern Christianity, and the Anglican Communion) by lawful ecclesiastical authority for the government of both the whole church and parts thereof and of the behaviour and actions of individuals.

Thomas Aquinas claims that the best form of government is a mixed government combining elements of democracy, aristocracy and kingship (Summa, 1–2, q. 105, a. 1).

Ideas which medieval political thinkers owe to Aristotle (or which could be claimed to be

reinforced by Aristotle) might be summarised as the following list:

In the Bible, briefly, the believers are advised to obey their rulers until the rulers’ commands conflict with those of God. This obedience is not limited to only kings that never sin, but to those who often sin. David, himself, also often sinned, as quoted in the Bible. Thus, the correct answer is B.

Christianity is agreed to be indifferent to matters of slavery, which is also compatible with the ancient Greek thought. Thus, the correct answer is D.

‘Voluntary poverty’, as mentioned in the Bible, refers to sharing goods which might be related to Communism. Thus, the correct answer is A.

The Christian theologians of late antiquity are referred as the Fathers of the Church. The most influential of them in medieval Europe was Augustine. Thus, the correct answer is E.