RUSYA, ORTA ASYA VE KAFKASYA

Due to the country's gradual movement to an authoritarian system and failure to fix the moribund economy, Kyrgyzstan entered a difficult period during which two  revolutions took place in 2005 and 2010, respectively. After the second Tulip revolution, the country continued on the path of democratization.

Despite its initial declerations of democracy, Turkmenistan took a different development path, leading to a state where its one-man rule is de facto. Thus, Turkmenistan has become the most authoritarian and closed political regime of the region. There is no indication that this will change soon.

Communist Nomenklatura is simply described as the top elite of the old communist system in the Soviet Union. It was a political control system over key appointments, meritocratic within the limitations of the one-party system.

In a presidential form of government, the president is directly elected by the people by a seperate election from the legislature. The president has the authority to appoint and dismiss the cabinet. The Head of the state is also the head of the government, not responsible to the legislature. A rigid seperation of powers is the main feature of this system. In a parliamentary form of government, the party or a coalition of parties with the most significant representation in the parliament forms the government. The prime minister is the head of government and appoints the cabinet of ministers. Unlike the presidential system, the parliamentary system needs the vote of confidence. In this sense, there is a flexible seperation of powers in this system. In a parliamentary form of government,the president is elected either popularly or by the parliament. His/her role as a head of state is symbolic.

In Turkmenistan, initially, a bicameral parliament consisting of Halk Maslahaty-People's Council and the Mejlis was established. Halk Maslahaty was the highest representative body, composed of the president, parliamentary deputies, peoples' representatives, Members of the Cabinet of Ministers, Supreme Court judges, and local officials.

The process of party formation in Uzbekistan began just before the Soviet Union collapsed with the establishment of the first official opposition party, Erk.

Saparmurat Niyazov assumed Turkmenbashy, which was translated as the "Leader of all Turkmens" in 1993 and then set about the nation's new identity on his own image.

In terms of economic reforms, while Nazarbayev, Akayev and to some extent Rahmon had liberalized prices and trade policy and moved much further on privatization, Karimov and Niyavoz resisted market transformation for much longer and had tried to retain many of the instruments of command economy.

Concerning the alphabet, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan acted very quickly and replaced their alphabet with the Latin alphabet in 1993.

In Uzbekistan, the first constitution adopted in 1992 created a seperation of powers among a strong presidency, the parliament, and the judiciary.

"This process, which is also called ‘transition process,’ in the newly independent Central Asian republics, has proceeded in democratization, marketization, and state-building/nation-building (p.91)." On the other hand, in countries such as Uzbekistan, "the state’s oppression, the dominance of clan identity, and the lack of citizens’ awareness had been the main obstacles to the process of democratization" (p.92).

"The controversial parliamentary elections held in February and March 2005 changed Kyrgyzstan’s course of events and caused the Tulip Revolution. Ultimately, President Askar Akayev left the country."

" ...most experts define it as a parliamentary system as the president’s powers shifted to parliament. In this sense, Kyrgyzstan is the only country that has a parliamentary system as a form of governance."

" In Turkmenistan, initially, a bicameral parliament consisting of Halk Maslahaty (People’s Council) and the Mejlis was established... It (Halk Maslahaty) was abolished in 2008 with the adoption of a new constitution" (p.95). Today,  unlike the other three republics "Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan have unicameral parliaments" (p. 95).

"Communist Nomenklatura: The term is simply described as the top elite of the old communist system in the Soviet Union. It was a political control system over key appointments".

"Once the Soviet Union dissolved, all the former First Secretaries of the Communist Parties, with the exception of Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan, became the new presidents of newly independent Central Asian republics".

"Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev, Kyrgyz President Askar Akayev, Uzbek President Islam Karimov, and Turkmen President Saparmurat Niyazov had remained helm for 28 years, for 14 years, for 25 years, and 15 years respectively. In Tajıkistan, following the first president Rahmon Nabiyev was ousted in 1992, Emamoli Rahmon was elected to the post in 1994 and has remained president of the country ever since. (p.97). "Turkmenbashy: Saparmurat Niyazov assumed this title, which was translated as the ‘Leader of all Turkmens’, in 1993 and then set about the nation’s new identity in his own image " (p. 98).

"Saparmurat Niyazov, who later assumed the title ‘Tukmenbashy,’ did not see himself as the region’s leader but pursued a ‘permanent neutrality’ that prevented his country’s joining any regional formation and international organizations" (pp. 97-98).

"National legends such as Timur in Uzbekistan, Kazakh Khanate in Kazakhstan, and the Epic of Manas in Kyrgyzstan are glorified in every single place".

" Kazakh is established as the state language.. In Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyz is the state language... In Uzbekistan, Uzbek is the state language... In the case of Tajikistan, the constitution defines Tajik as the state language."