PSİKOLOJİ

Punisher any stimulus which decreases the probability of the preceding response.

In the ‘negative reinforcement’ procedure, after the behavior occurs, an unpleasant stimulus is removed. As a result, the future probability of that behavior increases. For example, when it is getting cold, you wear your jacket; as a consequence you avoid getting cold.

In VR, the reinforcer is presented after a varying, unpredictable number of responses. For example, on a variable ratio 5 (VR 5) schedule, a rat produces an average of 5 lever presses for each food pellet. In VR schedules, response rate is fast. Slot machines at a gambling casino, buying lottery tickets, and fishing are examples of cases available for this type of schedule.

People have a tendency to imitate other people around them. Bandura suggests that
humans can learn through observation rather than through personal experience. In other words, learning can occur by acquiring information about the environment and other people’s behaviors through observation.

Köhler suggested that, chimpanzees solve problems in a flash of insight. It is like the ah-ha feeling. So, insight learning is also called ‘ah-ha experience’ because it occurs all of a sudden.

The cognitive approach is mainly concerned with internal events. According to this, psychologists should consider what is going on in the mind to understand behavior and they should study mental events scientifically using controlled experiments.

Do you think you have a chance not to salivate when you bite into a lemon? The answer is no. In this instance, salivation occurs automatically because of the stimulus, which is a lemon. This type of behavior is called ‘elicited behavior’. Elicited behaviors are involuntary and they are mostly reflexive behaviors.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) produces a reflexive response automatically; therefore, it does not require learning. For example; food, loud noises, painful stimuli.

Principles of classical conditioning are commonly used in TV commercials. A product to sell is a NS, initially. So, that product does not produce any
response before conditioning (as another behavioral consequence, people do not buy it). During conditioning (that is, during a TV commercial), the product is paired with a stimulus, which naturally produces positive feelings (that is, UCS). During this process, the product and the UCS are presented together. The product in the commercial, which is associated with a stimulus producing positive feelings, becomes a CS, so the product produces positive feelings
at the end. As a result of this repeated procedure, people start to buy the product to feel good.

When the dog does not salivate in response to other stimuli similar to CS, this means the dog has learned to discriminate the stimuli, and it only salivates in
response to the original CS. This phenomenon is called stimulus discrimination.

Elicited behaviors are involuntary and they are mostly reflexive behaviors. The correct answer is A.

Classical conditioning may play an important role in interpersonal attraction. According to the reinforcement-affect model of attraction (Byrne & Clore, 1970), the extent to which we are attracted to someone can be significantly affected by the degree to which the person is associated with events that elicit positive emotions. For this reason, we are generally attracted to people who say and do the kinds of things that make us feel good. Eventually, we feel good just being around such people. The correct answer is A.

In the ‘positive reinforcement’ procedure, after the behavior occurs, a pleasant stimulus is presented. As a result, the future probability of that behavior increases.In the ‘negative reinforcement’ procedure, after the behavior occurs, an unpleasant stimulus is removed. As a result, the future probability of that behavior increases. As a result, both positive and negative reinforcement increase the probability of response being repeated!

The root of operant conditioning comes from Edward Thorndike’s (1874 - 1949) studies on cats.

Stimulus generalization means to respond to stimuli similar to the original CS. So, learned response occurs not only to the original CS, but also to other stimuli, which are similar to original CS.

Bandura’s famous experiment is the Bobo Doll experiment (Bandura, 1961). In the experiment, children (boys and girls) watched a movie in which a model (a male of a female) acting aggressively toward a toy called ‘Bobo Doll’,

There are 4 types of procedures that one can follow in operant conditioning. In other words, there are four possible ways to change behavior based on the principles of operant conditioning.
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Positive punishment
• Negative punishment

Neutral reinforcement is NOT one of these procedures. Therefore, the correct answer is E.

There are 4 different partial schedules of reinforcement:
• Fixed Ratio (FR)
• Variable Ratio (VR)
• Fixed Interval (FI)
• Variable Interval (VI)

Flexible ratio is NOT one of these partial schedules of reinforcement. Therefore, the correct answer is E.

Edward Tolman was interested in hidden mental processes. To explore mind, he conducted studies in rats. In his experiments by training rats in a maze, Tolman further developed the ‘latent learning’ phenomenon.

Unlike classical and operant conditioning, Bandura’s social learning theory suggests that it is not necessary to perform any behavior or receive any reinforcer to learn.