PSİKOLOJİ - Deneme Sınavı - 8

In one of Thorndike’s experiments, a hungry cat was placed in a cage that could be unlocked with a little effort to see if the cat would make it to the other cage for food. Thorndike observed that the cat was able to open the cage through accidental/coincidental trials. As the number of experimental sessions increased, the cat’s behavior turned out to be more purposeful. In addition, the number of trials exhibited by the cat decreased with every experimental session. This way of behaving is called learning through trial and error. Then, Thorndike proposed that appropriate behaviors become stronger depending on the cat’s success and failure. The decrease in the number of trails and errors in time indicated that the animal was learning

Table 5.2 on page 105

Developed by Tolman (1886-1959), who disagreed with Thorndike’s ideas, purposive behaviorism is mainly a cognitive learning theory. Tolman suggested that an organism can learn without any reinforcement process. According to him, if a behavior serves a goal, it can be learned; if not, it cannot. Tolman supported this view of his via labyrinth experiments he conducted with rats.

In insight learning, problems are solved via four stages:

1. Preparation to solve the problem (Sultan’s thinking to reach the bananas)

2. Conducting mental and kinetic trials to solve the problem (Sultan’s trial jumps to get the bananas)

3. Incubation (Sultan’s sitting and thinking in one of the corners of the room)

4. Sudden illumination of the solution (Sultan’s sudden movement to attach the cues and reach the bananas)

Learning through observation is the dominant concept in social learning theory suggested by Albert Bandura in 1977. The name of the theory was updated to cognitive-social learning theory based on the importance of cognitive characteristics such as beliefs, sense of self, self-competencies, and expectations. Bandura stated that people learn through observation.

There are two kinds of reinforcement: positive reinforcement can be considered rewarding. The existence of a pleasant stimulus in the learning environment raises the odds for the recurrence of the same behavior in the future. Praising a child is an example for positive reinforcement. The correct answer is C.

Learning through observation, as described by social-cognitive learning theory, is realized via four steps. These steps are Attention, Retention, Production and Motivation. The correct answer is E.

Subjective tests refer to the interview method. The interview questions vary depending on the context; whether it is a clinical or a job interview. For instance, a clinical interview generally include, questions about present and past experiences, as well as questions aiming to assess any psychological characteristics that might contribute to the client’s present complaints. The correct answer is A.

The free association technique that requires the person to look at an ambiguous source (i.e., an inkblot figure, a picture, etc.) and tell whatever comes to her/his mind. In this way, the person projects her/ his unconscious motives to the test material. The correct answer is B.

While some take childhood life a criterion when defining abnormal behaviors, others take present time as the criterion. Some approaches, on the other hand, suggest that behaviors are determined through external factors. At this point, there are four main approaches.

• Psychodynamic Approach

• Cognitive Behaviorist Approach

• Humanist – Existentialist approach

• Sociocultural Approach

At the very bottom of the iceberg there is the unconscious layer, which has the largest area, meaning that the amount of information it holds is inconceivable. The unconscious holds the information that we cannot and do not want to access, such as the aggressive and sexual impulses, unacceptable thoughts, memories, and wishes as well as emotional conflicts. The unconscious is the deepest layer, as the information therein is difficult to achieve through our conscious efforts. The correct answer is D.

Psychodynamic approach was developed by Sigmund Freud. He believed adult abnormality was caused by unresolved conflicts in early childhood. He said that abnormal behavior arise from mental conflicts and drives that the person has been unable to resolve or coordinate with the realities of life and that therefore generate anxiety.

Superego represents moral rules, social norms and values. The correct answer is E.

When the ego uses regression as a defense mechanism, the person regresses to the childish patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. For instance, during times of physical illness, people might feel helpless and dependent, relying on others. Similarly, regression leads to receiving other people’s attention. So, the ego protects itself by pushing others to solve its own problems. However, you should keep in mind that the process is unconscious. Hence, the person does not consciously make plans or even realize that s/he is relying on others. The correct answer is A.

Behaviorist approach argues that abnormal behaviors occur because of learned behaviors like all other behaviors. It assumes that, unlike classical conditioning and operant conditioning, abnormal behaviors are shaped by the effects of internal processes such as expectations and a wish to see the results of the things done.

Suppression is the conscious attempt to hide or prevent unacceptable thoughts, feelings and motives. For instance, you are at your instructor’s office and he is scolding you for some reason. Suddenly you feel a strong urge to slam the door and leave the office. But you suppress this urge by trying to calm down. In this case you are consciously aware of your motive and your effort to deal with your motive. Remember that the defense mechanisms generally operate at the unconscious level. Suppression is an exception for this. The correct answer is C.

Table 8.1 on page 189

When the baby becomes a toddler (1-3 years of age) s/he proceeds into the Anal Stage as the libido moves from the mouth to the anus. The correct answer is B.

On the other hand, not having a single specific reason for a phobia can be suggested for “complex” phobias. Such phobias may have multi-dimensional reasons. To illustrate, the reason of “fear of open areas (agoraphobia)” might be observed in different dimensions such as coming together with other people, meeting with strangers or simply talking on the phone.

In the Adolescence (12 to 18 years) the mahor conflict that occurs is  "Identity vs. Role Conflict". The correct answer is E.