PSİKOLOJİ - Deneme Sınavı - 17

First of all, they need to be aware of the psychological theories explaining the situation. Second, they need to have knowledge of studies that already tested these theories. Third, researchers need to come with a theoretical question that has not already been answered. Fourth, in order to test this hypothesis, a researcher in psychology needs to use objective measures of the relevant behaviors (variables) and collect data from people (Table 1.1). Fifth, a researcher in psychology needs to analyze the collected data and evidence that a hypothesis is correct or not. Thus, psychology is regarded as a science because researchers in psychology conduct empirical or observational studies in which they test theory based hypotheses by measuring the behaviors in an objective way. 

The correct answer is E.

Empiricism is a philosophical approach about how humans acquire knowledge. It suggests that humans come to the world with empty minds, which is called a tabula rasa or a blank slate. According to this approach, humans gain knowledge later in their life with their senses and through experience.This contrasted with notion of dualism and rationalism, which suggested that humans have knowledge through the reasoning. Instead, empiricism emphasized the sensations, perceptions and observations, people experience in the world they live in, as bases of their knowledge. 

The correct answer is A.

One of the names known with idealism is British philosopher George Berkeley (1685-1753). Proposing that humans’ knowledge is influenced by their own perspective or worldview, idealism offered psychology a new approach for the explanation of human behavior.

The correct answer is C.

Beginning of modern psychology dates back to the late nineteenth century, when Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) founded first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. 

Wilhelm Wundt also wrote the first psychology textbook titled Principles of Physiological Psychology. He was not only influential in Germany but also in the UK and the USA. He had students important in the history of psychology, such as Granville Stanley Hall, James McKeen Cattell, and Frank Angell from the USA and Edward Bradford Titchener from the UK.

The correct answer is B.

Psychoanalysis approach, founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), suggested that psychology should study human mind by discovering the unconscious processes.

The correct answer is C.

Gestalt psychology was a reaction against structuralism, which attempted to divide human experience or consciousness into its elements. According to Gestalt psychology, individual elements of any experience cannot explain the experience itself. This approach argued that the human mind organizes the experience in the way that is not reducible to the sum of its parts. It suggested that elements of any experience interact with each other and humans perceive a pattern or a whole of these interactions, which takes place across time and/or space (Figure 1.1). Thus, psychology should consider the whole in order to understand its parts because the whole of anything is greater than its parts.

The correct answer is D.

Cognitive perspective suggested that psychology should study how mental processes influence the human behavior. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, researchers such as Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909), Jean Piaget (1896-1980), Semenovich Vygotsky (1186-1934), and Noam Chomsky (1928) influenced the development of cognitive perspective in psychology.

The correct answer is A.

Social psychology studies human behavior in relation with others’ behavior. It aims to understand how others influence humans’ behaviors, thoughts, and feelings. Social psychology has played a very important role in the development of psychology since the early twentieth century and interested in a large variety of subjects. Social identities and group and inter-group dynamics, interpersonal relationships, family and close relationships, aggression, helping behavior, crowd behavior, conformity, attitude formation and change, gender, ideological beliefs and voting behavior are some of the well-known subjects which social psychology studies.

The correct answer is E.

Traffic Psychology studies traffic behaviors (e.g., having an accident) in             relation with biological, social, and psychological properties.                           

Sports Psychology studies sports behaviors (e.g., high performance in tennis) in relation with biological, social, and psychological properties

Psychology of Religion studies (non)religious behaviors (e.g., going to church) in relation with biological, social, and psychological properties

Music Psychology studies music behaviors (e.g., composing music) in relation with biological, social, and psychological properties

Forensic Psychology studies judicial behaviors (e.g., defendant suitability for trial) in relation with biological, social, and psychological properties

Family Psychology studies family behaviors (e.g., communication problems) in relation with biological, social, and psychological properties

Educational Psychology studies school behaviors (e.g., participating class) in relation with biological, social, and psychological properties

Political Psychology studies political behaviors (e.g., participating collective action) in relation with biological, social, and psychological properties

The correct answer is A.

Stimulus in the environment has two aspects: environmental stimulus and attended stimulus. Let me explain with an example. Imagine that you are walking in a park where there are lots of stimuli that you can potentially perceive such as trees, banks, birds, etc. These are environmental stimuli. When you are walking in the park a distinctive leaf captures your attention. Then, you reliaze that this thing is not a leaf; it is a leaf-shaped bug. Thus, you focus on the bug. The bug becomes the center of your attention. In other words, it becomes the attended stimulus. If you shift your attention (for example, David Beckham comes into the park for running), your attended stimulus also changes (David Beckham).

Absolute  threshold is explained as the energy level at which the lowest level stimulus is noticed or discerned by the human senses, including vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch. For example, the lowest amount of salt in a glass is noticed by stimulating your sensory system.

The difference threshold refers to is the lowest noticeable change in the intensity of the stimulus. It occurs depending on how great the intensity of the stimulus is. For example, if you lift a five-kilogram and a ten-kilogram dumbbell consecutively, you can notice the difference. However, if you lift 100 kilos and then 105 kilos, the difference is most likely indistinguishable.

Transduction is the transformation of one form of energy into another form of energy.

The correct answer is C.

The trichromatic theory is based on the idea that the light of a particular wave length stimulates the three different receptor mechanisms, each with different spectral sensitivities (also called Young – Helmhotz theory of color vision). These three colors are red, green, and blue. Each of these color-sensitive cone cells has different degrees of sensitivity, with blue cones being the most sensitive and red cones being the least. This activity pattern results in the perception of color. Color deficiencies are usually explained by thrichromatic theory. In the absence of any of the cone types or an altered absorption spectrum in one or more of the photopigments lead to color perception problems. Color blindness is a fairly common condition and mostly seen in men. This is because the cone photopigment genes are located on the X-chromosome (men have only one X-chromosome).

The correct answer is B.

Monocular pictorial cues are the source of depth information (Figure 4.6):

• Occlusion: This is a result of nearer objects covering up part of farther objects.

• Relative height: Objects that are below the horizon and have their bases higher in the field of view are usually seen as being more distant.

• Relative size: When two objects are of equal size, the one that is farther away will take up less of your field view than the one that is closer.

• Familiar size: We use this cue when we judge distance based on our prior knowledge of the size of objects.

• Atmospheric perspective: It occurs when more distant objects appear less sharp accompanied with a slight blue tint.

• Linear perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge in depth. 

• Shadowing or Shading: When objects appear in front of the shadow, the angle and sharpness of the shadow will influence the amount of depth perceived.

• Texture Gradient: Elements that are equally spaced in a scene appear to be more closely packed as distance increases.

Monocular pictorial cues are the source of depth information (Figure 4.6):

• Occlusion: This is a result of nearer objects covering up part of farther objects.

• Relative height: Objects that are below the horizon and have their bases higher in the field of view are usually seen as being more distant.

• Relative size: When two objects are of equal size, the one that is farther away will take up less of your field view than the one that is closer.

• Familiar size: We use this cue when we judge distance based on our prior knowledge of the size of objects.

• Atmospheric perspective: It occurs when more distant objects appear less sharp accompanied with a slight blue tint.

• Linear perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge in depth. 

• Shadowing or Shading: When objects appear in front of the shadow, the angle and sharpness of the shadow will influence the amount of depth perceived.

• Texture Gradient: Elements that are equally spaced in a scene appear to be more closely packed as distance increase.

The correct answer is D.

There are four principles of law of proximity that the Gestalt psychologists proposed to explain how perceptual grouping occurs: Grouping by (a) proximity; (b) common region; (c) connectedness and (d) synchrony.

(a) Proximity: When things are near each other, they appear to be grouped together.

(b) Elements that are within the same region of space appear to be grouped together, and this phenomenon is called principle of common region.

(c) The principle of uniform connectedness states that a connected region of visual properties, such as lightness, color, texture, or motion, is perceived as a single unit

(d) The principle of synchrony states that visual events occurring at the same time are perceived as belonging together.

The correct answer is A.

Sound waves first reach the outer ear, which is the visible part of the hearing system. The main function of the outer ear is to catch the voice from the outside world and transmit it to the other parts of the ear. The sound wave reaches the eardrum through an ear canal. When the sound waves reach the eardrum (tympanic membrane), They cause vibration. As a result of this, the vibrations coming to the center are transmitted to the middle ear. The middle ear contains three bones: anvil, stirrup and hammer. The sound wave arriving at the inner ear reaches the structure of the cochlea, which resembles a snail shell. The fluid in the cochlea vibrates as a result of sound waves. There is also a section inside the cochlea that contains the hearing neurons called the hair cell. These neural signals are then transmitted to the hearing center and hearing-related areas in the brain.

The correct answer is E.

The sense of smell is important for most species because it is often the primary source of perceiving the environment. The animals, which have a highly developed sense of smell are macrosmatic. The sense of smell is not that crucial to our survival, so humans are microsmatic. The most basic function of the sense of smell in vertebrate animals is to catch the chemical stimuli in the air (Figure 4.15). Animals sometimes emit odor and serve as the source of stimulus, (for instance during mating behavior)4. Basicly in humans, the sense of smell plays a role in behaviors such as finding nutrition and orienting themselves in the environment. It has also a role on social relations.

The correct answer is D.

Olfactory adaptation is the reduction in response to a continuing smell.Olfaction is more important for our survival than we think. It serves as an olfactory warning system in dangerous situations, such as gas leakage or rotten food.

The correct answer is E.

The surface of the tongue contains many ridges and valleys caused by the presence of structures called papillae. All of the papillae (except the filiform papillae) contain taste buds (Figure 4.16.), and the whole tongue contains about 10,000 taste buds. When a bud is examined in detail, it is observed that between 40 and 100 taste cells are present. The signals formed in the receptors are sent to the brain stem and then to the cerebral cortex via the taste signal. The taste of the thing that the person eats is determined by the arrival of these signals at the brain.

The correct answer is B.

Transduction is the transformation of one form of energy into another form of energy. The correct answer is A.

Perception is the process of analyzing, recognizing, interpreting, and organizing information. The correct answer is B.