Political Institutions and Political Power

These might be pressure groups, interest groups, individual businesses, and corporations.

The term “political party” means a group with a unified goal to fill political jobs and support particular ideas.

For most parties, there are three main goals: developing a party message (platform), getting
members in government leadership, and running the government.

There are two main types of parties: cadre and mass.

Cadre parties are described as small organizations that are typically dominated by politically elite groups of activists with a coopted leadership structure with limited control over the membership and comparatively week
communication links. These types of parties are mostly funded by the wealthy. A difference between mass
parties and cadre parties is that mass parties try to appeal to a large number of people. Mass parties
have a bureaucratic leadership and use advanced technology.

Proportional Representation (PR) is the most common type of electoral system in democracies.
PR is similar to SMP. Under PR, the person or party gets a share of the available offices based on the
percentage of votes.

In SMP the candidate who gets the most votes wins the election.

Elections in authoritarian regimes are often more about providing a way for the citizens to approve or reject ideas, even if the result of the vote is not going to change the decision of the leader. 

Public opinion is the collection of individual opinions of social issues, government policies
and politics.

The media, elites, political parties, interest groups, political figures, social and spiritual or religious institutions. 

Typically, pressure groups are broken into four categories: promotional, sectional, insider, outsider.

Promotional groups are also referred to as causal groups because they usually promote one
specific cause. Unlike promotional groups, sectional groups refer to pressure groups that represent specific types of individuals. These are only open to members of one profession, organization or trade.

Generally, an interest group is an organization of people who share
the same philosophies and attitudes.

Institutional interest groups are organizations that have corporations as members and represent
major businesses or industries. Interest groups that are categorized as membership interest groups
typically have individuals rather than corporations as members.
Membership interest groups can be further categorized based on whether membership is public or private. A typical membership interest group may focus on a single-issue, multiple-issues,
or it might be membership or profession focused.

The legislative branch usually is the main arm of the government that establishes the laws of
the land. The executive branch typically ensures that all of the laws are obeyed by overseeing the
operation of the government. The executive branch is also usually the “face” of the nation, especially
in foreign relations. The judiciary branch ensures that all laws are acceptable or constitutional.

The individuals who make up the legislative branch are usually elected. They are considered
representatives because they represent the people who voted them into the position. In
modern legislatures, the elected officials serve a predetermined length of time in the position
before they can get reelected. Legislative bodies are usually either unicameral
(meaning one body, assembly, chamber or group) or bicameral (meaning two bodies, assemblies,
chambers or groups).

Judicial review refers to the power of the courts of a country to examine the actions of the legislative, executive, and administrative branches of the government and to determine whether such actions are consistent with the constitution.

1.A well-defined hierarchy of authority,
2. A partitioning of work based on
specialization,

3. A structure of rules regarding the rights and
responsibilities of the employee,
4. A structure of rules and procedures for
providing services to citizens equally and
fairly,
5. A focus on events or facts rather than personal
attributes for interpersonal relationships,
6. Employment and promotion based on
knowledge, skills and abilities.

Bureaucrats are supposed to be the “nonpolitical” arm of the government who are responsible
for ensuring that the laws and policies are carried out as intended and in a fair and equitable manner.Bureaucracy suggests that constancy, order, neutrality, fairness and equality are possible through
good government. The bureaucracy is different from other branches of government, but it is dependent on them. The executive or head of government (such as a president or prime minister) usually appoints the
high-ranking officials in a bureaucracy. 

Representative bureaucracy posit that bureaucracies that look like the citizenry (i.e., varying races, ethnicities,
socio-economic status, education level, gender, etc.) are more likely to incorporate a wider range
of thoughts, ideas, and solutions to government processes and services that reflect the interests and
wishes of the public.