JEOPOLİTİK STRATEJİ

According to Montevideo Convention which sets out the parameters of a state spells out four aspects for a political entity to be properly called a state: defined territory, permanent people, centralized authority and sovereignty.

Among other things, the natural resources, proximity or remoteness to conflict areas, the climatic characteristics, neighborhood with prosperous or politically stable (or unstable) nations are all factors that contribute to the geopolitical inventory.

The nation state, having played a central role in international politics throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, is not a point of reference anymore because of globalization.

The End of History thesis by Fukuyama stressed that ideology was no longer a determinative tool in interstate politics and that economic rivalry would become the main dynamic in international affairs. Also, Huntington’s famous clash of civilizations argument suggests that disputes in interstate politics which would be from now on characterized by the disagreements associated with desires for domination by different civilizations. Both these arguments show that economic rivalry has gained more importance as a factor that shapes interstate affairs.

The geopolitics of oil (Klare, 2009), the geopolitics of religion (Dijkink, 2006), the geopolitics of water (Selby, 2005), the geopolitics of propaganda and the geopolitics of internet (Hlihor, 2014) have emerged as particular strands of geopolitics.

It is possible to cite a number of geopolitical challenges and threats that may most likely invoke the responsibility of the states, including global health issues, humanitarian catastrophes, poverty, human security and global economic crises.

Responsible sovereignty is based on a prior idea of sovereignty as responsibility which deals with the notion of sovereignty from a normative perspective rather than a free pass for the independent states in the conduct of their foreign policies (Deng et al., 1996). Thus states cannot be expected to seek and use opportunities to expand their territories if they act with responsible sovereignty.

In such a complex political environment of changes and continuities, individual states tend to define their foreign policies and national interests in consideration of their own geopolitical package as well as the potential moves by others towards making use of their own advantages in the geopolitical arena. Thus they have to consider the complex nature of international relations.

Within the study of geopolitics, national security, particularly the military security of the state, could be evaluated from the perspective of several major factors including historical territory, nationalities, the structure of the state, the possession of and ability to use natural, material and human resources as effectively as possible (Logunov, 1993, 20-22).

The theory of interdependence basically suggests that due to the inevitable engagement between states in political, military and economic realms, international cooperation is a must and a wise move for the overall betterment of all states and of the international system.

Territory refers to a physical space, mostly to land. But it should be noted that territory is not an ordinary type of land and that it is a qualified and political component. As a physical space, territory is an integral element of the state which cannot possibly be separated from it. Therefore, the correct option is E.

Only one state has monopoly and control over a territory; therefore, there is connection between territory and the exclusive jurisdiction of a state. This jurisdiction and monopolistic authority by a state over a certain territory is assured under international law which, by the cardinal principle of non-intervention, protects the territorial integrity of all sovereign states. This means that territory, associated with the state and considered an inseparable part of it, is legally protected and that violations directed against its integrity lead to legal responsibility. Thus, it is fair to argue that territory holds a political, as well as legal meaning. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Globalization had been the epicenter of political debates and analyses on world politics throughout the 1990s. The rise of globalization as a very popular notion and analytical tool to explain the nature and dynamics of international relations in this particular period could be attributed to the end of Cold War where two so-called superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, dominated the stage of international politics as leaders of two power poles (this is why that era is called bipolar world). Globalization was promoted as a sweeping explanation to describe the new state of affairs in the interstate relations. Therefore, the correct option is E.

The process of globalization also had visible impacts in the domain of international politics. The scholarly debates particularly focus on whether or not this process has eroded the significance of nation-states. Nation-state which, in technical terms, refers to a political entity that exercises absolute sovereignty over a defined territory and a certain group of people in that territory has been viewed as the main determinant actor of the international political system, particularly since the 20th century. Therefore, the correct option is B.

General conviction among IR scholars suggests that the nation-state is the most important (if not the only) actor of the international political system. Featuring a centralized authority of government and exclusive jurisdiction, the nation state is considered the most effective and prevalent mode of political organization. However, whether the state will remain the main actor of the global system is one of the most controversial debates of the IR discipline. Therefore, the correct option is A.

Particularly subsequent to the 1970s when the impacts of Cold War visibly started to erode in international politics, the term regained relevance and relative independence from the debates on strategy and military studies. The then-State Secretary of the US, Henry Kissinger, made significant contributions to the revival of the concept in this era. In his memoirs, The White House Years, Kissinger referred to the US foreign policy he drafted in the 1970s as an approach that considered the geopolitical requirements and dictations. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Although it was not at the epicenter of the debates, geopolitics complemented the theoretical and practical explanations offered in this new era in a number of aspects. Fukuyama’s seminal book The End of History (1992) argued that the battle between major ideologies ended with the obvious victory of liberal democracy, suggesting that the liberal values are the ultimate achievement of mankind. The End of History thesis further suggested that the world politics is entering a new era where most states will adopt similar values and construct identical identities. This approach further stressed that ideology was no longer a determinative tool in interstate politics and that economic rivalry would become the main dynamic in international affairs. Liberal economy and liberal democracy would reshape the world and nations would show a tendency towards establishing some sort of world government performing roles of global governance in an era of complexity. Therefore, the correct option is D.

The current understanding of the international relations creates correlations between sovereign privileges of the states, and their moral and legal responsibilities by virtue of being recognized as states. This is to suggest that even though it serves as the basis of state acts and autonomy, sovereignty has also been transformed into the source of state responsibility in certain instances where the members of international community have established a shared code of morality or normativity. Therefore, the correct option is C.

Human security refers to a shift from emphasis upon state’s own national security concerns to the protection of the security of the individuals in international politics. In other words, individuals have, to a certain degree, become a subject of interstate relations and international law particularly when their survival as groups of people is at stake. Therefore, the correct option is C.

Geopolitics also plays a role within the state itself in the form of regulations. Thus, this instate geopolitical activities can be properly called geopolitics of regulation which is mostly performed by private actors that make the private/public distinction a blurred category. Regulatory activities can also take place at the transnational level as observed in the presence of a number of such organizations in a number of fields where states are unable or reluctant to make investments. The regulatory activities of these institutions encompass a myriad of areas and transcend the borders of the nation states. Because they do not have direct reference to geography or territorial security, they can be regarded as part of “low geopolitics,” as opposed to “high geopolitics.” Therefore, it is fair to argue that geopolitics and globalization have always gone and moved together rather than being antithetical to each other. Therefore, the correct option is A.