JEOPOLİTİK STRATEJİ

The last concept linked with geopolitics and thus with both geo-economics and geostrategy is geo-culture. Geo-culture is generally placed under the umbrella of geopolitics. Geo-culture as a term was originally coined by Immanuel Wallerstein in his book “World Systems Analysis” to refer to the cultural framework of the modern world system. Therefore, the correct option is B.

Geo-culture in Wallerstein’s conception is a systemic phenomenon, but it has also been used to refer to the geo-cultures of states individually. While Wallerstein aims to explain the legitimizing ideology of the world system, the second usage of the term encompasses the geographical landscape where a certain culture is dominant even if geographically unconnected. In this line, geo-culture becomes a tool for foreign policies of states. Therefore, the correct option is A.

In the survey of geopolitics’ historical evolution, we encounter different periods where geopolitical ideas were produced. The pre-modern period is the period before geopolitics was founded as a scientific research area in the 19th century. The historical journey of geopolitical thought and theory passed through the classical era, the Cold War era and entered the current geopolitics of the postCold War era. Therefore, the correct option is A.

In ancient Chinese and Indian writings, geopolitical ideas were set forth in relation to war strategies and statecraft. In the writings of Confucius (Confucius, The Analects) and Sun-Tzu (Sun-Tzu, 2002) the focal point is geostrategy through which the two thinkers aimed to guide their state for political and military success. Control of resources, topographical access routes, building alliances, inhabiting empty lands after occupation weresome of the subjects they had considered in their analyses. Therefore, the correct option is C.

In ancient Chinese and Indian writings, geopolitical ideas were set forth in relation to war strategies and statecraft. In the writings of Confucius (Confucius, The Analects) and Sun-Tzu (Sun-Tzu, 2002) the focal point is geostrategy through which the two thinkers aimed to guide their state for political and military success. Control of resources, topographical access routes, building alliances, inhabiting empty lands after occupation weresome of the subjects they had considered in their analyses. Therefore, the correct option is D.

Montesquieu in the 18th century explained in his book “The Spirit of the Laws” the difference of legislative structures of states by relating it to geography, namely the climate. For example, according to Montesquieu, warm climates weaken people, and they become more prone to be enslaved, while people living in colder climates are braver and thus prone to be free. The geographical determinism in Montesquieu’s writing has beena phenomenon lasting since Aristoteles in geopolitical or geographical thought and this phenomenon is the main point where geopolitical thinking splits into premodern and modern categories. The pre-modern geopolitical thinking assumes the man as a part of the nature and therefore is not geopolitics in the sense of the word. In other words, what separates modern geopolitical thinking from the premodern one is the assumption that man and nature are distinct and geopolitics as a science aims to reveal and analyse the relationship between them.Therefore, the correct option is B.

Social Darwinism: The theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals. Social Darwinism was popular in late 19th and early 20th centuries and was used to justify racism and thus is no longer acceptable. Therefore, the correct option is D.

In 1919 Mackinder re-examined his argument and concluded that his thesis was still valid and applicable. In his new book “Democratic Ideals and Realities” he replaced the term pivot with heartland and expanded its boundaries as to encompass also Eastern and Central Europe. In this work, he also postulated that “Who rules Eastern Europe commands the Heartland. Who rules the Heartland commands the World Island. Who rules the World Island commands the world”. Therefore, the correct option is A.

This is the domino theory which essentially was based on the idea that if one country in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow it in a domino effect. It was first suggested in 1947 by William Bullit and was adapted in policies of the Kennedy and Nixon administrations. Therefore, the correct option is D.

In this sense, as an example, the US can be categorized as a global power which has a global geostrategy. The post-Cold War US geostrategy can be seen as a reflection of Brzezinski’s geostrategy which he has drawn in his “The Grand Chessboard” in 1997. The geostrategy suggested by Brzezinski is based on the idea of the global primacy of the US which in turn was linked to primacy in Eurasia. Brzezinski defined Eurasia as the grand chessboard where the struggle for global supremacy takes place and suggested that for maintaining its superpower position in world politics the US needs to develop a geostrategy focusing on Eurasia because “a power that dominates Eurasia would control two of the world’s three most advanced and economically productive regions”. The post-Cold War geostrategy of the US seems to have followed the path Brzezinski had formulated. This can be seen in US foreign policy pursued since 1990s until present which seems to enter a phase for change since the first quarter of the 2000’s. Therefore, the correct option is E.

Geoculture as a term was originally coined by Immanuel Wallerstein in his book “World Systems Analysis” to refer to the cultural framework of the modern world system.

Geopolitics, in its broader definition, is the analysis of the geographic influences on power relationships in international relations. Etymologically consisting of the words “geo” meaning earth, land and “politics”; geopolitics is a discipline emerged out of political geography.

According to Montesquieu, warm climates weaken people, and they become more prone to be enslaved, while people living in colder climates are braver and thus prone to be free.

He introduced a number of key elements and concepts within his theory, one of which is the “heartland”. Mackinder’s writings were mainly concerned with the grand strategy of the British empire and at this juncture geography was the pivot for a clear understanding of world politics.

Ratzel is the first theorist who introduced and used space and location as a means of analyzing the state. His theory of state was based on the organic state idea that accordingly suggests that states are living organisms which are born and have to grow. For a state, to grow a sufficient life-space (lebensraum) is imperative, therefore in order to grow, states have to expand by changing existing borders. Lebensraum was defined by Ratzel as the geographical surface area required to support a living species at its current population size and as population grew it had to expand.

Karl Haushofer’s geopolitics is based on these common aspects of German geopolitics, but he had also been influenced by Mackinder’s heartland theory.

In this manner, a leading figure was George Ken- nan, an American diplomat and historian. Kennan was the figure who suggested containment as the core of US geopolitical strategy against Soviet activities after the Second World War. The main source for his containment theory is an article Kennan published in 1947, in Foreign Affairs, but under the pseudonym “Mr. X”. Since Kennan was a member of the US Department of State during the Truman administration, he could promote the idea of containment. Containment, according to Kennan, is the “application of counter-force at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points, corresponding to the shifts and maneuvers of Soviet policy”.

At this point, it is worth mentioning another theory which provided the base for the containment to be actualized. This is the domino theory which essentially was based on the idea that if one country in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow it in a domino effect. It was first suggested in 1947 by William Bullit and was adapted in policies of the Kennedy and Nixon administrations.

Brzezinski defined Turkey as a geopolitical pivot, which means “a state whose importance is derived not from its power but rather from its sensitive location and from the consequences of its potentially vulnerable condition for the behavior of geostrategic players”. Thanks to its geostrategic location, Turkey has a variety of geostrategic choices; the Western perspective, the Northern or Caucasus perspective and the Mediterranean perspective.

Russia, the main actor of US and European energy geo strategies, is therefore a good example of the materialization of geo-economics. Russia uses its energy endowment to advance strategic objectives, which can best be seen in the Russian-Ukrainian gas crisis of 2008.