DİPLOMASİ

It was one of the dominant powers until the end of 17th century and carried out its diplomatic relations on the basis of superior-inferior dichotomy. They carried out their diplomatic relations on the basis of unilateralism and there was no room in the Ottoman diplomacy for relations on the basis of equality and mutuality. Therefore, they did not adapt the rules of modern diplomacy until early 1790s because they did not want to make concessions to “inferior” states. However, as opposed to the general view that the Ottomans did not take part in diplomatic relations due to the sense of superiority up until the 18th century, they attached great importance to their diplomatic relations from the beginning. The basic tools of Ottoman diplomacy were Âmans (mercies) and capitulations which reflected the unilateral nature of Ottoman diplomacy and started to be granted to Venetians as early as the reign of Mehmed II (Fatih) in the 15th century. In the heydays of the Ottoman rule, Suleyman I (Kanuni) granted capitulations to France. Initially, capitulations were economic, political and legal privileges granted to foreign states and subjects. However, as time passed and the empire began to decline, they turned into burdens on the Ottoman Empire hard to carry.

Although it was an expansionist power with imperial claims, the Ottoman Empire did not neglect diplomacy in the period between 15th and 18th centuries and conducted diplomatic relations with Venice, Genoa, Poland, Russia, Iran, Hungary, Austria, France, Transylvania, Bogdan, Walachia, Ragusa, Georgia, Algeria, Tripoli, Morocco and Marrakech.

Nevertheless, the Ottoman rulers attached great importance to diplomatic relations despite unilateral nature of these relations in order to be a part of world system and power struggle. As opposed to the general view that the Ottomans did not have bilateral relations with the European or Christian states because the Quran orders not establishing relations with infidels and fighting against them (Tuncer, 11), Ottoman rulers were more pragmatic than argued. From the beginning, they established close relations not only with Beyliks (tribes) in Anatolia, but also with the Byzantine Empire. Through inter-tribal or inter-state marriages, they consolidated their power and expanded their territories. Therefore, the Ottoman Empire cannot be regarded as an entity solely ruled by strict Islamic laws, rather it was also influenced by customary laws and local customs. Ottoman Sultans like Mehmed II issued qanunnames (books of law) in accordance with the Turkish state tradition empowered rulers to make laws, so the Ottoman system was not only ruled by religious laws, but also by customary laws. Such a legal system provided flexibility and pragmatism to the policies of the empire. (Yurdusev, 14-15)

Institutionally, Ottoman sultans were sending agents or envoys to carry out their specific missions in the ad hoc diplomacy period. Although they did not establish permanent embassies in foreign states before the 18th century, the Ottomans allowed foreign states to establish diplomatic missions in the empire. Venice was the first state opened an embassy in Istanbul right after the conquest. It was followed by Poland (1475), Russia (1497), France (1525), Austria (1528), the Great Britain (1583) and the Netherlands (1612).

In the ad hoc diplomacy period, agents or envoys were sent to foreign states for different purposes. They were assigned by the sultan for signing peace treaties or trade agreements, peace proposals, carrying out peace negotiations or mediating between two states, negotiating the clauses of treaties, establishing or consolidating friendly relations, collecting debts of Ottomans, learning the opinions and policies of the states about the empire, declaring the change of throne, giving presents of the sultan, delivering letters from the sultan, declaring an Ottoman victory, congratulating a new monarch on behalf of the sultan, joining coronations of European monarchs, inviting European monarchs to certain ceremonies and claiming taxes. (Tuncer,12)

Ottoman envoys assigned by the sultan to carry out specific diplomatic activities were evaluating their missions in the reports called Sefaretname (Diplomatic Letters). Diplomatic letters were rich sources for the Ottoman diplomacy and diplomatic missions. The number of these diplomatic letters were about forty and the oldest diplomatic letter belongs to Kara Mehmet Pasha sent to Vienna to ameliorate relations between the empire and Austria after Vasvar Treaty had been signed in 1664. There were two types of diplomatic letters: special ones and general ones. Special diplomatic letters were only about the developments and results of the mission carried out by the envoy. On the other hand, in general diplomatic letters, Ottoman envoys were describing social life, military power, culture, education, industry and development level of the receiving country.

Therefore, the first Ottoman Embassy was established in London in 1793 and this was a turning point in Ottoman diplomacy. Being aware of the loss of dominance and superiority over the European powers, which had become more powerful starting with colonization and continued with the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, Ottoman rulers used all instruments and institutions of diplomacy.

Until the reign of Abdulhamid II (1876-1909) the major ally of the Ottoman Empire was the Great Britain.

However, with Serbian and Greek uprisings during the reign of Mahmud II, training Turkish-Muslim translators and diplomats became a priority for the Ottomans. To this end, Tercüme Odası (Translation Room) was established in 1821 and Muslim-Turkish translators began to be trained in this institution and they replaced Dragomans who were the translators during the ad hoc period.

Dragomans were responsible for the translation of reports, documents and treaties in the Ottoman Empire especially in the classical age. They were integral parts of the Ottoman diplomacy from the beginning. Dragomans were selected among the people who knew foreign languages. The correct answer is E.

Initially, German, Polish, Greek and Armenian translators were working in the office, whereas after Mahmud II, the empire favored Turkish people in this institution. The correct answer is D.

For the first time in Ottoman history, Mehmed II granted capitulations to Venetians in 1454 on the basis of existing custom which was derived from the capitulatory agreement between the Byzantine Empire and Venice. The correct answer is A.

On the other hand, Ottoman rulers granted certain privileges and rights to non-Muslim states and citizens called capitulations on the basis of Âman system. Capitulations were political, economic and legal privileges benefitted by non-Muslims. As early as the fifteenth century, Mehmed II granted capitulations to Venice. However, this policy was a part of power struggle game. The correct answer is C.

The first Ottoman Embassy was established in London in 1793. The correct answer is D.

Modernization and professionalization of Ottoman diplomacy started with Selim III, who was a visionary sultan seeking for modernization and Westernization of Ottoman system in all aspects such as the military, bureaucracy and economy. Therefore, for Selim III, it was necessary for the Ottoman Empire to establish permanent diplomatic missions in European capitals because the sultan was aware that in comparison to the European state system, the Ottoman system was backward. The correct answer is C.

To this end, Tercüme Odası (Translation Room) was established in 1821 and Muslim-Turkish translators began to be trained in this institution and they replaced Dragomans who were the translators during the ad hoc period. The correct answer is D.

Therefore, Mahmud II established Hariciye Nezareti (Minister of Foreign Affairs) in 1836 as the first step of the establishment of a modern and professional body for conducting foreign relations. (Tuncer, 30-31) It can be regarded as the beginning of today’s Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The correct answer is E.

Being aware of the loss of dominance and superiority over the European powers, which had become more powerful starting with colonization and continued with the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, Ottoman rulers used all instruments and institutions of diplomacy. The Industrial Revolution also played a serious role in the erosion of Ottoman power. With the accumulation of capital and boom in economic production, Western states hegemonized the international relations. Te correct answer is E.

In the late Ottoman period, modernization of diplomatic service was followed by the professionalization of ministry of foreign affairs. Before the 19th century, Reis-ül Küttap (Head of Secretaries) was mainly responsible for diplomatic correspondence. This body was established during the reign of Suleyman I and working subject to the Grand Vizier. The mission of Reis-ül Küttap in the state apparatus was to control duties of secretaries in the diplomatic correspondence. The correct answer is D.