DİPLOMASİ

It is generally accepted that modern diplomacy practices the started in Italy. As early practices of diplomacy started in Italy, early theories of diplomacy were also formulated there. One of the earlier of these theories belongs to Nicollo Machiavelli. Machiavelli’s formulation of diplomacy is based on his experience of serving as diplomat of Florence, his home city, until the fall of the republic in Florence in 1512. During his career Machiavelli took part in the foreign relations of Florence with both other Italian city-states and foreign countries. His theory of diplomacy can be read through his works The Prince, The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy and The History of Florence. Thereofre, the correct option is D.

Another contributor of the diplomatic theory is Hugo Grotius, who is a great opponent of war and deems it acceptable when it is just, and for this reason according to him diplomacy has a vital role. His work Three Books On the Law of War and Peace is the reflection of this approach. He defines three methods to accommodate misunderstandings among states without a war. Thereofre, the correct option is C.

French statesmen Richelieu has also formulated ideas on diplomacy. His theory of diplomacy can be derived from his Political Testament, in which he has penned political advice for Louis XIII. Having become the French prime minister in an age of continuous wars, Richelieu’s main concern was to establish peace and carry out peaceful relations with other states. Thereofre, the correct option is B.

Another Florentine diplomat who has contributed to the theory of diplomacy is Francesco Guicciardini. The main theme in Guicciardini’s theory, which is generally outlined in his History of Italy, is the value of good ambassadors, which he sees as a source of prestige for the price. Thereofre, the correct option is E.

Congress of Westphalia (1644–48). The congress at which an end to the Thirty Years’ War was negotiated.The main fruits of the negotiations were the two treaties of peace signed on 24 October 1648 known collectively as either the “Treaty” or the “Peace” of Westphalia. They are generally reckoned to have resolved the structure and codified the constitutional rules of the European statessystem as it had emerged from the unity of medieval Christendom. Thereafter, it has not been unusual to see the term “Westphalian system” used to describe the post-1648 system of international relations, i.e. that in which states – secular, sovereign, independent, and equal – are the members, and stability is preserved by the balance of power, diplomacy and international law. Thereofre, the correct option is B.

In very broad terms it is possible to separate diplomatic relations between states into two, depending on the number of actors, as bilateral diplomacy and multilateral diplomacy. Whereas bilateral diplomacy defines relations between two states, multilateral diplomacy defines the relations between more than two such actors. Thereofre, the correct option is B.

The constantly widening world of diplomacy requires different methods applied to different cases. This has led to the formulation of different types of diplomacy. Some of them are those that have been used by states for a very long time. But some are relative new and probably would not be considered as diplomacy in the nineteenth or even the significant part of the twentieth century. There is a big variety of diplomacies in this sense. It is not in the capacity of this chapter to dwell upon them all but the most important will be examined.

Secret Diplomacy

Conference and Summit Diplomacies

Coercive Diplomacy

Crisis Diplomacy

Track Two Diplomacy and Multitrack Diplomacy

Economic Diplomacy

Public Diplomacy

Digital Diplomacy

Thereofre, the correct option is E.

A version of coercive diplomacy is military diplomacy which can be described as the use of force of threat of it to achieve military goals. The use of naval force for the same ends is referred as gunboat diplomacy. Therefore, the correct option is A

Celebrity diplomacy is the inclusion of celebrities as advocates to publicise certain causes like peace, human rights, environment and raise awareness about these issues. Therefore, the correct option is B.

The first thing that has to be defined would be the scope of diplomacy since the other elements such as actors and tasks could only be determined according to how broad the scope is defined. When the term is taken in a narrow sense it usually describes political relations between states and includes the practices of the diplomats and ministries of foreign affairs. That is why history of international relations between states is defined as diplomatic history. Defining diplomacy as an instrument of foreign policy is not incorrect but is incomplete. In modern international relations it is no longer possible to define diplomacy only in terms of foreign policy or political relations between states that is carried out by statesmen and diplomats. The scope of diplomacy has expanded through the course of history. In several periods in history the scope of diplomacy has become a matter of discussion among the theoreticians and practitioners of diplomacy. Many have mentioned and accepted that there was old diplomacy and a new diplomacy. This points to the evolving character of diplomacy. Each era has a new diplomacy of its own. This is especially true for the twenty-first century. For this reason, it is necessary to adopt a broader approach. The correct answer is Choice C.

The most important function of diplomacy, regardless of its scope or its actors, is communication. In a sense diplomacy is communication itself. Another major function of diplomacy is representation. The main instrument of representation is embassies and its main actors are ambassadors, consulates, attaches and other diplomatic personnel. Monitoring the receiving state is one of the oldest functions of diplomacy. The aim of monitoring is to gather information about the receiving state and report this information to the sending state. The correct answer is Choice C.

It is generally accepted that modern diplomacy practices the started in Italy. The correct answer is Choice A.

One of the earlier of these theories belongs to Nicollo Machiavelli. Diplomacy, according to Machiavelli, must be permanent, in the sense that states should have diplomatic representatives, at least in those countries that they have high interests whether they are allies or enemies. Still even though he himself was a diplomat, Machiavelli believed that military power was more important than diplomacy. But because not all states had enough military power to pursue their aims, they needed diplomacy. Diplomacy according to Machiavelli is based on deception. This assumption of diplomacy is closely related to Machiavelli’s conception of human nature which he defines as “For it can be said about men in general that they are ungrateful, fickle, dissembling, hypocritical, cowardly, and greedy.” The correct answer is Choice D.

The first significant diplomatic writer of the twentieth century is Ernest Satow. Satow owes his reputation in diplomatic theory to his book Guide to Diplomatic Practice, which was the first remarkable book in English language about the theory and practice of diplomacy when it was published in 1917. It is a comprehensive study which covers not only the roles and functioning of diplomatic institutions and actors but also gives a historical account of diplomacy.

Hugo Grotius, who is one of the contributors of the diplomatic theory, a great opponent of war and deems it acceptable when it is just, and for this reason according to him diplomacy has a vital role. His work Three Books On the Law of War and Peace is the reflection of this approach. He defines three methods to accommodate misunderstandings among states without a war. (Grotius, 1121-1127) The first of these methods is the conference method. The second method is arbitration between parties who do not belong to the same jurisdiction and have no common judge to appeal to, which he considers to be not only convenient but necessary that “Congresses of Christian states were held, where, by them who are no ways interested on one side or other, the differences of contending parties might be made up; and that some means were thought upon to oblige the parties at variance to accept of a peace upon fair and reasonable terms.” What Grotius has suggested is still an important method of conflict resolution in international relations and considered as one of the main functions of diplomacy. The third and the last method to prevent war according to Grotius is to cast lots.

Diplomacy, according to Machiavelli, must be permanent, in the sense that states should have diplomatic representatives, at least in those countries that they have high interests whether they are allies or enemies. Still even though he himself was a diplomat, Machiavelli believed that military power was more important than diplomacy. But because not all states had enough military power to pursue their aims, they needed diplomacy. Diplomacy according to Machiavelli is based on deception. This assumption of diplomacy is closely related to Machiavelli’s conception of human nature which he defines as “For it can be said about men in general that they are ungrateful, fickle, dissembling, hypocritical, cowardly, and greedy.”

French statesmen Richelieu has also formulated ideas on diplomacy. His theory of diplomacy can be derived from his Political Testament, in which he has penned political advice for Louis XIII. Having become the French prime minister in an age of continuous wars, Richelieu’s main concern was to establish peace and carry out peaceful relations with other states. For this reason he attributed great significance to diplomacy. The main theme of Richelieu’s theory is negotiations.

The main theme in Guicciardini’s theory, which is generally outlined in his History of Italy, is the value of good ambassadors, which he sees as a source of prestige for the price. According to him a well-trained, qualified ambassador is a sign of value of the prince as well and should be rewarded.

The correct answer is Choice D.

One of the earlier of these theories belongs to Nicollo Machiavelli. Machiavelli’s formulation of diplomacy is based on his experience of serving as diplomat of Florence, his home city, until the fall of the republic in Florence in 1512. During his career Machiavelli took part in the foreign relations of Florence with both other Italian city-states and foreign countries. His theory of diplomacy can be read through his works The Prince, The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy and The History of Florence. Another Florentine diplomat who has contributed to the theory of diplomacy is Francesco Guicciardini. The main theme in Guicciardini’s theory, which is generally outlined in his History of Italy, is the value of good ambassadors, which he sees as a source of prestige for the price. Hugo Grotius, who is a great opponent of war and deems it acceptable when it is just, and for this reason according to him diplomacy has a vital role. His work Three Books On the Law of War and Peace is the reflection of this approach. He defines three methods to accommodate misunderstandings among states without a war. French statesmen Richelieu has also formulated ideas on diplomacy. His theory of diplomacy can be derived from his Political Testament, in which he has penned political advice for Louis XIII. Having become the French prime minister in an age of continuous wars, Richelieu’s main concern was to establish peace and carry out peaceful relations with other states. The first significant diplomatic writer of the twentieth century is Ernest Satow. Satow owes his reputation in diplomatic theory to his book Guide to Diplomatic Practice, which was the first remarkable book in English language about the theory and practice of diplomacy when it was published in 1917. The correct answer is Choice B.

French statesmen Richelieu has formulated ideas on diplomacy like some authors in Italy. His theory of diplomacy can be derived from his Political Testament, in which he has penned political advice for Louis XIII. Having become the French prime minister in an age of continuous wars, Richelieu’s main concern was to establish peace and carry out peaceful relations with other states. The first significant diplomatic writer of the twentieth century is Ernest Satow. Satow owes his reputation in diplomatic theory to his book Guide to Diplomatic Practice, which was the first remarkable book in English language about the theory and practice of diplomacy when it was published in 1917. Another British diplomat who has contributed to diplomatic theory is Harold Nicolson. Like Satow he combined his experience with the history of diplomacy. In his book titled Diplomacy, which was published in 1939, a whole chapter is dedicated to the development of diplomatic theory. Another important writer who should be mentioned is Hans Morgenthau, who is considered the founder of international relations. Morgenthau’s theory, which he portrayed in his 1948 book Politics Among Nations, can also be read as a contribution to the theory of diplomacy although not dedicated to it. Morgenthau sees the quality of diplomacy as the most important of all the factors which make the power of a nation, since it is diplomacy that brings the different elements of national power to bear with maximum effect upon those points in the international situation which concern the national interest most directly. The last diplomatist/writer to be discussed in this chapter is Henry Kissinger. Kissinger’s famous work titled Diplomacy can actually be read as a history book and on many occasions he has been described as a historian. He does believe that international politics cannot be seized by only theoretical approach and for this reason the study of history is crucial. The correct answer is Choice D.

In very broad terms it is possible to separate diplomatic relations between states into two, depending on the number of actors, as bilateral diplomacy and multilateral diplomacy. Whereas bilateral diplomacy defines relations between two states multilateral diplomacy defines the relations between more than two such actors. As is defined in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the establishment of diplomatic relations between States, and of permanent diplomatic missions, takes place by mutual consent. (Article 2) Establishing diplomatic relations is only one of the facets of recognition for states. Likewise being accepted to an international organization is a sign of acceptance in a broader sense. Recognition by itself does not require the establishment of diplomatic relations but is a necessary prerequisite for establishing diplomatic relations. Similarly breaking of diplomatic relations does not mean the withdrawal of recognition. Breaking up of diplomatic relations is a unilateral act, realised by an announcement of any of the states, on the contrary to bilateral agreement of establishment. States establish mutual relations usually with an agreement that can be in the fashion of an announcement, a joint decision, exchange of notes or issuing of a communiqué and in some rare cases states just encounter without any kind of agreement but just the implication of having agreed to have relations. The correct answer is Choice C.

Multi-lateral diplomacy is an outcome of modern diplomacy, which came to exist after the Congress of Westphalia and usually functions through conferences. (See below: Conference Diplomacy) An important step towards multilateral diplomacy was the establishment League of Nations following the end of the First World War. What was novel about the League of Nations, especially in terms of diplomacy was that it served as permanent base for multilateral diplomacy which used be carried out through conferences that met for once and for some days only. Another phenomena that pushed the development of multilateral diplomacy was the significant increase in the number of states since 1945. Multilateral diplomacy has both strengths and weaknesses. On the weak side it may bring certain issues to a gridlock by any of the parties if a desired outcome is not reached. This may postpone or even sweep away the possibility of any solution. On the strong side it serves as a ground for cooperation. This cooperation can be directed to problem-solving as well as goal-setting in issues concerning the parties, which at times may include all states as in the case of League of Nations or United Nations. The correct answer is Choice E.

Crisis diplomacy defines the international efforts to manage and solve a crises. The need for crisis diplomacy has increased significantly since the world has become more interconnected and a crisis occurring in one region of the world becomes the concern of other states, on both regional and international level. It is to everyone’s knowledge that a major part of diplomacy is carried out in secrecy. Secret diplomacy refers to diplomatic engagements that take place without the knowledge of the public. However it does not mean that the diplomatic meetings that occur behind closed doors are secret diplomacy. If the term was defined in this way, almost all diplomatic intercourse would have to be defined as secret diplomacy. Neither does it mean confidentiality. What is meant by secret diplomacy is that the very existence of certain diplomatic meetings are kept secret from domestic and foreign publics.

Coercive diplomacy defines the use of limited force or the threat of using force in diplomatic relations, with the aim of achieving desired ends. This makes coercive diplomacy a type of engagement that differs from the generally accepted conceptualisation that diplomacy involves peaceful means in interstate relations.

Conference diplomacy refers to the multilateral diplomatic negotiations that take place in international conferences. But this does necessarily mean that all negotiations also occur with the participation of all actors. Bilateral or limited multilateral negotiations also take place among the participants of conference diplomacy.

Summit diplomacy refers to the meetings of heads of states or governments. It can be bilateral, brining the leaders of two states together or multilateral with the participation of several leaders. It also can be ad-hoc or institutionalised and regularly take place. The correct answer is Choice C.

Scope: The first thing that has to be defined would be the scope of diplomacy since the other elements such as actors and tasks could only be determined according to how broad the scope is defined. When the term is taken in a narrow sense it usually describes political relations between states and includes the practices of the diplomats and ministries of foreign affairs.