DİPLOMASİ - Deneme Sınavı - 15

Multi-track diplomacy claims that placing all aspects of unofficial diplomacy under track-two makes it difficult to seize whole scope and context of the field. For this reason, multi-track diplomacy offers a multilayer differentiation with nine tracks instead of two. It also foresees a cooperation with official diplomacy. Therefore, the first track in multitrack diplomacy is the government. Track two would be the professional, experienced nonofficial attempts of conflict resolution through nongovernmental actors. Track three is defined as business and consequently is carried out by businessmen. Track four of multi-track diplomacy is carried out by private citizens. Track five includes research, training, and education. Track six of multi-track diplomacy is activism.  Track seven is religion and is based on directing the influence of religious beliefs, communities and institutions to conflict resolution by highlighting themes like shared values.  Track eight is about the funding of all these multitrack diplomacy activities. The last track, track nine is the communication and media. On the other hand, the choice D resolution might have  been used instead of Professional Conflict Resolution in Track Two, but it is missing. Therefore it is wrong answer.  Doğru cevap " D " dir.

The Byzantines employed a number of tactics, both overt and covert to achieve their aims through diplomacy rather than military force. It is therefore common to label Byzantine diplomacy as “war by other means” (Antonucci, 1993: 11). They were unique in their method of involvement in internal affairs of other countries. For this aim, the empire initiated a new institution for diplomatic practice, the Bureau of Barbarians. The correct answer is C.

Professionalization of diplomatic institutions started with the Westphalia Treaty in 1648 after which modern and secular states began to be established.

Diplomatic instruments can be classified as bilateral diplomacy, multilateral diplomacy and summit diplomacy.

Origins of modern diplomacy date back to Italian city states in the 14th century. The basic reason for the need to establish diplomatic relations between Italian city states was the limited amount of lands to rule. Therefore, they had to solve their problems peacefully in such an environment prone to warfare.

It is a system established in Europe with the Vienna Congress on the basis of balance of power strategy to protect status quo after Napoleonic Wars between 1800 and 1815.

The Great Britain, France, Italy and the United States were the main actors in this system.

Bilateral diplomacy is the oldest form of diplomatic practice consisting of two states meeting to solve their problems.

Its origins date back to ancient Greece.

Main actors in the UN are the United States, Russia (formerly the Soviet Union), the Great Britain, France and China.

Besides its main bodies, UN has subsidiary organs such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).

NGOs are non-governmental and non-profit organizations interested in global problems such as global warming, pollution, human rights, children’s rights, health problems, refugees and so on.

Evolution of diplomatic instruments and institutions triggered after the French Revolution with the formation of nation states in today’s understanding. As time passed, forms of these tools have changed. The last turning point in this process can be regarded as the globalization era after 1980s.

However, professionalization of diplomatic institutions started with the Westphalia Treaty in 1648 after which modern and secular states began to be established.

Bilateral diplomacy is conducted between two states, but, initially, these two states have to recognize each other to establish diplomatic missions and carry out diplomatic practice. Recognition means the acceptance of the existence of a state as an independent and sovereign entity in the international arena. Recognition consists two rights of a state: domestically it has to enjoy full sovereignty over its territories, internationally it has to be independent from any other state. Moreover, membership to the 0 (UN) is another criterion for recognition. UN membership is an indicator of global recognition and today almost all states with full sovereignty and independence are members of UN.

Multilateral diplomacy is literally defined as diplomatic relations between more than two states. It is also known as “conference diplomacy” or “parliamentary diplomacy” because multilateral diplomatic relations are mainly conducted through conferences and face-to-face interaction between leaders or missions of states. Its origins go back to Vienna Congress convened in 1815 after Napoleonic Wars when European powers came up with the idea of balance of power strategy which sustained peace in Europe until WWI. Multilateral diplomacy became popular in the 20th century because problems between states turned into global problems such as peace and security, environment, health, migration, etc. and international actors understood that such problems had to be negotiated and solved through multilateral diplomacy. The rise of democracy and its ideals after WWII resulted in the democratization of diplomacy and diplomatic practices. More importantly, the accountability of states to their domestic public opinion as well as world public opinion necessitated the establishment of the instruments and institutions of multilateral diplomacy. As a result, multilateral conferences or organizations aim to provide the support of all parties in the solution of global problems which require support and initiative of all sides. There are many advantages of multilateral conferences like focusing on specific issues and motivating the parties to find a solution or reach an agreement in a limited period of time. As a result of collaboration among participants, it develops closer relations between states. Finding a solution or reaching an agreement is beneficial for all parties because it increases their prestige and popularity. Due to the limited period of time, multilateral conferences force parties to focus on specific issues and come up with solutions. (İskit, 307-308) On the other hand, multilateral conferences are used by powerful states to make their propaganda as dominant states in the international arena as well as drawing the attention of all states to global problems such as environmental and economic issues. Joining such conferences and organizations increase the prestige of participants. On the contrary, states not joining these multilateral entities may lose their prestige and the right to have a say in ultimate decisions.

UN consists of six main bodies: General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice and Secretariat. Except International Court of Justice in Hague, other bodies of UN are in New York. Major functional bodies of the UN are General Assembly and Security Council. General Assembly comprises of all UN members and each state has one vote for the decisions. General Assembly focuses on issues such as “considering and approving the United Nations budget and establishing the financial assessments of Member States; electing the non-permanent members of the Security Council and the members of other United Nations councils and organs, on the recommendation of the Security Council appointing the Secretary-General.

WWI was a turning point in the rise of summit diplomacy as a result the decrease in trust to professional diplomats due to their inability to prevent such a global war and summit diplomacy became widespread.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). These are non-profit, voluntary citizens’ organizations acting on national, regional or international levels out of the jurisdiction of states. They provide monitoring for the implementation of decisions and treaties on various issues ranging from environment to human rights.