DİPLOMASİ - Deneme Sınavı - 11

The main actors of diplomacy, as it is traditionally accepted regardless of its scope, are foreign ministers along with other employees of the ministry and the diplomatic agents in foreign countries, that is the head of mission and members of the diplomatic staff of the mission.

Scope: The first thing that has to be defined would be the scope of diplomacy since the other elements such as actors and tasks could only be determined according to how broad the scope is defined.

Functions: According to the Article 3 of Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, the functions of a diplomatic mission are representing the sending state in the receiving state, protecting in the receiving state the interests of the sending state and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law, negotiating with the government of the receiving state, ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the government of the sending state and promoting friendly relations between the sending state and the receiving state, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations.

It is generally accepted that modern diplomacy practices the started in Italy. As early practices of diplomacy started in Italy, early theories of diplomacy were also formulated there. One of the earlier of these theories belongs to Nicollo Machiavelli.

Another Florentine diplomat who has contributed to the theory of diplomacy is Francesco Guicciardini. The main theme in Guicciardini’s theory, which is generally outlined in his History of Italy, is the value of good ambassadors, which he sees as a source of prestige for the price.

Another contributor of the diplomatic theory is Hugo Grotius, who is a great opponent of war and deems it acceptable when it is just, and for this reason according to him diplomacy has a vital role. His work Three Books On the Law of War and Peace is the reflection of this approach. He defines three methods to accommodate misunderstandings among states without a war.

Multi-lateral diplomacy is an outcome of modern diplomacy, which came to exist after the Congress of Westphalia and usually functions through conferences.

Secret diplomacy refers to diplomatic engagements that take place without the knowledge of the public. However it does not mean that the diplomatic meetings that occur behind closed doors are secret diplomacy.

Multi-track diplomacy claims that placing all aspects of unofficial diplomacy under track-two makes it difficult to seize whole scope and context of the field. For this reason, multi-track diplomacy offers a multilayer differentiation with nine tracks instead of two. It also foresees a cooperation with official diplomacy. Therefore, the first track in multitrack diplomacy is the government and its official representatives as the actors of traditional diplomacy. Track two would be the professional, experienced nonofficial attempts of conflict resolution through nongovernmental actors. Track three is defined as business and consequently is carried out by businessmen. This track is based on the assumptions that besides providing financial sources for conflict resolution and peace making efforts, these actors can also build mutual trust and friendship through economic and commercial channels. It is expected that economic ties and interests would forge the parties solve conflicts that could harm these ties and interests. Track four of multi-track diplomacy is carried out by private citizens. Often referred as citizen diplomacy, this track resembles the track-two diplomacy and makes it a sub-field of multi-track diplomacy. It brings together people from different sects of society, in workshops, exchange programs and joint projects in order to break prejudices and develop mutual understanding. Track five includes research, training, and education. Educational institutions from kindergarten to universities, research centres, tanks tanks can be actors of this diplomatic engagement. What is aimed with the mentioned activities is to get to the bottom of the conflict and formulate solutions through researches and study programs, train people who could carry out negotiation and mediation in resolving the conflict and raise awareness through educational institutions for a sustainable peace. Track six of multi-track diplomacy is activism and aims to raise awareness among the public and influence them though protests and gatherings about issues like peace, human rights, environment, social and economic justice. Track seven is religion and is based on directing the influence of religious beliefs, communities and institutions to conflict resolution by highlighting themes like shared values. Track eight is about the funding of all these multitrack diplomacy activities. The actors of this track, or the funders can be individuals, like philanthropists, or groups like communities, foundations and corporations. The last track, track nine is the communication and media. What is aimed with this track is to provide information that would influence the public opinion and bring people together despite the distances.

During his career Machiavelli took part in the foreign relations of Florence with both other Italian city-states and foreign countries. His theory of diplomacy can be read through his works The Prince, The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy and The History of Florence. The correct answer is E.

Diplomacy according to Machiavelli is based on deception. This assumption of diplomacy is closely related to Machiavelli’s conception of human nature which he defines as “For it can be said about men in general that they are ungrateful, fickle, dissembling, hypocritical, cowardly, and greedy.” Therefore the diplomat can use deceptions, tricks and schemes in order to maximise the state’s interest in its relations with other states. The correct answer is E.

Hugo Grotius defines three methods to accommodate misunderstandings among states without a war. (Grotius, 1121-1127) The first of these methods is the conference method. The second method is arbitration between parties who do not belong to the same jurisdiction and have no common judge to appeal to, which he considers to be not only convenient but necessary that “Congresses of Christian states were held, where, by them who are no ways interested on one side or other, the differences of contending parties might be made up; and that some means were thought upon to oblige the parties at variance to accept of a peace upon fair and reasonable terms.” What Grotius has suggested is still an important method of conflict resolution in international relations and considered as one of the main functions of diplomacy. The third and the last method to prevent war according to Grotius is to cast lots. The correct answer is B.

It is generally accepted that modern diplomacy practices the started in Italy. As early practices of diplomacy started in Italy, early theories of diplomacy were also formulated there. The correct answer is B.

Celebrity diplomacy is the inclusion of celebrities as advocates to publicise certain causes like peace, human rights, environment and raise awareness about these issues. The correct answer is A.

The Group of Seven (G7) and The Group of Twenty (G20) The Group of Seven (G7), formerly G8 is a club of industrialised democratic states (France, Germany, Japan, the USA, the UK, Italy and Canada) that meets annually to discuss important economic, financial, and political issues.  The correct answer is A.

Coercive diplomacy defines the use of limited force or the threat of using force in diplomatic relations, with the aim of achieving desired ends. The correct answer is C.

A version of coercive diplomacy is military diplomacy which can be described as the use of force of threat of it to achieve military goals. The use of naval force for the same ends is referred as gunboat diplomacy. the correct answer is C.

Polylateralism is the conduct of relations between official entities (such as a state, several states acting together, or a state-based international organisation) and at least one unofficial, non-state entity in which there is a reasonable expectation of systematic relationships, involving some form of reporting, communication, negotiation, and representation, but not involving mutual recognition as sovereign, equivalent entities. The correct answer is D.

The Group of 20 (G20) is made up of the G7 industrialised democratic countries, the five emerging BRICS countries, (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) seven other economically emerging countries (Argentina, Australia, Indonesia, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Turkey,) and the European Union, which together as the G20 represent the twenty largest global economies, generating approximately 85 per cent of global GDP. Although G20 began as a forum to discuss global economic stability, its agenda expanded to include the discussion of other topics, such as global security, global health, development, gender, climate change, migration, and the refugee crises. The correct answer is D.

It is generally accepted that modern diplomacy practices the started in Italy. As early practices of diplomacy started in Italy, early theories of diplomacy were also formulated there. One of the earlier of these theories belongs to Nicollo Machiavelli. Thereofre, the correct option is A.