ÇATIŞMA ÇÖZÜMÜ

Saunders (1999:26) identifies actors in five arenas who may contribute to the peace process:

1. Official actors: Governments and international organizations using official diplomatic methods for conflict resolution.

2. Quasi-official actors: Actors working outside of the government, but have a close relationship with it.

3. Public actors: Citizens outside of government. They don’t have to use official methods but can provide a bridge between officials and civil society.

4. Civil society actors: Civil society from different areas that work closely to bring divided societies together.

5. Actors from outside of the conflict: They show the intervention capacity of the national, regional, and international context.

Saunders does not specifically mention actors from the media as a group that plays a role in the peace process. Thus, the correct answer is E.

The social peace process refers to the reconciliation phase of the peace process. It involves social transformation, which goes beyond the political peace process and conflict transformation. This period focuses on forgiveness, memory work, memorialization, remembering, public apologies, truth, and reconciliation procedures. Cultural symbols (national flags, anthems, etc.) and identity are reevaluated during this period.

The correct answer is B.

In pre-negotiations, to overcome confidence problems, the parties use confidence-building methods such as public statements, the release of prisoners, and the declaration of ceasefires.

The correct answer is A.

One of the psychological variables of readiness theory is optimism. Optimism refers to a sense of the possibility of moving to a mutually acceptable agreement. Pruitt (2007:1529) says that motivation by itself is not enough to involve a negotiation; parties need optimism about the results of the peace talks. Three elements, or states of mind, affect the emergence of optimism:

Working trust

Lowered aspirations

A perceived light at the end of the tunnel

The correct answer is E.

Back-channel communication is secret communication between the leadership of opposing groups (including organizations and nations) that is designed to foster settlement of a conflict between them.

The correct answer is B.

In principled bargaining, in which the people are separated from the solution, participants are problem solvers. The parties are soft on the people, hard on the problem.

The correct answer is E.

Framework or substantive agreements are the second type of peace agreement and have similarities with pre-negotiation agreements. However, these agreements are designed with more detailed and comprehensive issues. Parties want to move forward by signing a framework agreement, but do not need to come to a final agreement. They may confirm the desire for a resumption of peace talks and organize peace panels, schedules, and venues. Instead of a sine qua non, parties can produce an interim agreement as a step towards a more comprehensive settlement.

The correct answer is C.

Security has always been one of the priorities for conflicting parties to bring about peace both after civil or interstate wars. Parties may give a guarantee to the other side not to be restrained, arrested, searched, or harassed by the agreement. In this regard, Wallensteen (2002:149) defines five criteria to manage security issues:

Demilitarisation and a unified army

Giving guarantees for leaders

International involvement, such as peacekeeping forces

Power-sharing

Amnesty to leaders, officers, and soldiers.

The correct answer is D.

According to Putnam (2002:259-260), parties should find a balance between demand and tensions to success peace and human rights. In this process, implementers must balance the conditions of the agreement and limited resources.

The correct answer is B.

The peace process between the government and MILF returned to negotiations after President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo took office in 2001. This time, the MILF insisted on inviting a third party from the OIC to monitor the ceasefire. Malaysia, a member of the OIC and neighbor of the Philippines, got involved, and Kuala Lumpur, its capital, became the venue for negotiations. Three rounds of peace negotiations were held. After the first, they signed the Tripoli Agreement on Peace in 2001, the first comprehensive agreement between the MILF and government.

The correct answer is D.

II, III, IV, V

Public actors

The sides can have a meeting with exploratory talks

Both parties should perceive the cost as a catastrophe

Both parties are required to realize ripeness of the moment

Motivation leads parties to have much more ambitious goals

Negotiations

It is a competitive strategy

To build trust for further talks and agreements to temporarily stop war

I, II, III