ÇAĞDAŞ DÜNYA UYGARLIKLARI

Turk refers to a people that originated in the harsh north Central Asian steppes and moved mainly to the south and west for various reasons over the centuries. Like other nomads, Turks were comprised of various tribes with similar customs, traditions, and beliefs.

Arabic has had a significant influence, as the Turks borrowed many words since they were introduced to Islam and became adherents. However, Persian has had the heaviest influence on Turkish, since Central Asia for the longest time was a dual-language realm. Turks as nomads in vast north Central Asia may have spoken only Turkish, but once they settled in cities, speaking Persian as well became almost a necessity.

Historians believe that the Xiongnu, identified by the Chinese in third century BCE, is the precursor of the Turks:

“The Xiongnu (Hongnu in Old Chinese, Xwn in Soghdian, probably Old Turkic Qun), also known as the Asiatic Huns, were one of the nomadic peoples of Ancient Central Asia. They are thought to have descended from various Turkic peoples known as Xianyun, Xunyu and Hongyu, yet all the knowledge we have come from Chinese sources written centuries later”.

The first notable leader of the Xiongnu was Touman (Teoman). He fought not only the Chinese to the south, but also the Yuezhi people to the west. Around 215 BCE, China started unifying and it completed the Great Wall to keep territory recently conquered and to advance further north and west. Touman’s son Modun became the leader in 209 BCE. He was successful in subduing many other nomadic peoples to the north including the Tung-nu and Dingling, and Donghu to the east in Manchuria. He then invaded China and laid siege to the capital Taiyuan.

After Attila’s death, the Huns were defeated by the Ostrogoths and the Gepidae. Under the leadership of Attila’s son Dengizich, the Huns had to withdraw to the northeast of the Black Sea. So, the European Huns regrouped one last time. They crossed the Danube River and attacked the Eastern Roman Empire, only to be defeated decisively. As a result, the Huns left the Balkans for good. Two remaining Hun clans, the Kutrigurs and the Utrigurs, lived near the Sea of Azov until the end of the sixth century when they were overrun by Avar Turks, who had been running from other Turks. This latter group were starting the first Turkish Empire with the Turkish name in it: The Kok Turk (Göktürk) Empire.

Turks were introduced to Islam around the eighth century and became Muslims at an increasing rate by the eleventh century. Using their nomadic warrior skills and aptitude in state formation, the Turks established control over Islamic lands, in some cases by the invitation and encouragement of local peoples. The rise of the Mongolians shook and dispersed the Turks a bit, but that was short-lived and the Turks re-established authority in Muslim lands and expanded their authority into Christian lands, ultimately reaching Central Europe by the sixteenth century.

Severe snowstorms and frosts resulted in widespread famine in the 620s. The new and strong Tang Dynasty in China took advantage of this by conspiring to stir the affairs of the Ashina clan to bring on an era of feuding. The Eastern Kok Turk Empire could not last longer and it fell in 630. At the same time, the Western Kok Turk Empire continued its expansion south, all the way to southern Afghanistan. However, internal fighting escalated, and the Western Kok Turk Empire also fell to the Chinese in 659.

Selim I turned his attention to the East and South. In swift succession, he defeated the Safavids at the Battle of Chaldiran (1512) and then the Mamluks at the Battles of Marj Dabiq (1516) and Ridaniya (1517). Safavids were pushed back and the Mamluk Empire collapsed.

Turkic languages are divided into three main groups: Turkish, Turkmen, and Azeri in the southwest; Tatar, Kazakh, Kirghiz, Karakalpak in the northwest; and Uighur and Uzbek in the east.

Starting with Murad I, the Ottoman Sultans exercised the claim to be the caliph, i.e., being designated as the Leader of Islam. With the success of Selim I against the Safavids and his conquest of the Holy Islamic cities of Mecca and Medina, these claims came to fruition. Selim I was the undisputed Caliph of the Islamic world after defeating the Mamluks and conquering Syria, Arabia, and Northeast Africa in 1517.

The correct answer is C.

The answer is B.

The answer is D.

The answer is D.

The answer is C.

The answer is A.

The answer is B.

The answer is E.

The answer is D.

The answer is B.