Development of US Foreign Policy: Strategies and Doctrines

A doctrine is usually described as a set of principles with a certain internal cohesion that is endorsed by a group. This group could be a political party, or a military organization, or a philosophical movement. The doctrine is expected to provide the general boundaries of the worldview of that organization.

Political texts during the early periods of the Republic carried a modest tone. In fact, as a founding father and the third President, Thomas Jefferson envisioned a democratic nation of small farmers, rather than powerful industrialists, who could serve as the agents of the US power globally. Political atmosphere was more inward looking, isolationist than globalist or interventionist. 

Monroe Doctrine of 1823 could be classified as the first official foreign policy doctrine of the United States. It was articulated by President James Monroe during the 7th State of the Union address to the Senate and the House. In his long speech, the president carefully makes the case that the U.S. does pay attention to the conflicts in Europe, because they share the same origins, but does not pick sides.

Initial reaction to the Monroe Doctrine was rather positive across Latin America. However, as the U.S. began to claim a more hegemonic role, the Latin American nations quickly realized that their neighbor to the north was neither benign nor friendly.

Yes. Political writings at the time also began to legitimize the American expansionism. The editor of Democratic Review magazine summarized the mindset of this period. He disowned any connections to the European legacy. Instead, he highlighted the novelty and moral superiority of the system that was being created in the United States. Freedom and progress were highlighted as the highest values. Yet, the text also contained a missionary spirit, a sense of entitlement to lead the way, and a destiny to rule others, who apparently did not have as superior systems of rule.

The effects of Manifest Destiny were probably most dramatically observed across Latin America. After its independence from Spain, Mexico was embroiled in civil wars and infighting among numerous generals who wanted to be the President. The weakness of central authority and divisions within the military created a power vacuum in Mexico. Territories in the north, particularly Texas, took advantage of this, and decided to secede and go their own way. In 1836, Texas separated from Mexico and declared itself as an independent Republic. However, the ultimate goal was to join the United States as a new state, which they did in 1845.

The Platt Amendment had the following provisions: “That the government of Cuba consents that the United States may exercise the right to intervene for the preservation of Cuban independence, the maintenance of a government adequate for the protection of life, property, and individual liberty, and for discharging the obligations with respect to Cuba imposed by the treaty of Paris on the United States, now to be assumed and undertaken by the government of Cuba.”

President Theodore Roosevelt, who served for two terms from 1901 to 1909, was a strong advocate of US expansionism. He was a naval commander before his presidency. When he got elected to the White House, he made sure the U.S. military presence was felt across the world.

President Roosevelt was instrumental in supporting the secessionist elites in Colombia, who eventually led to the formation of a small but independent Panama in 1903. The newly independent Panama immediately signed a treaty with the U.S. for building the Panama Canal, and granted the U.S. exclusive rights for five miles (8 km) on either side of the canal, (the Canal Zone) until 1979. This meant the U.S. had a permanent base in the Canal Zone, and full control of the Canal until 1979. 

While President Theodore Roosevelt (Republican) envisioned a more assertive U.S. role in the world by serving as the global police, President Wilson (Democrat) had expressed U.S. assertiveness with very different methods. Wilson also advocated for greater U.S. engagement in the world. However, his preferred foreign policy tool was diplomacy.

Wilson considered the secret treaties between the European great power as despicable enterprises. He thought colonialism was a morally bankrupt policy choice. He looked down upon his European peers for partitioning the territories of other peoples in Africa and the rest of the world with cupidity. He provided the lexicon of international relations with numerous famous expressions, such as “right to national self-determination, “making the world safe for democracy”, and “a just and lasting peace.”

Summary of Wilson’s Fourteen Points

1. Open diplomacy among nations, no secret treaties.
2. Freedom of the seas, except territorial waters
3. Free trade; removal of all trade barriers
4. Disarmament: reducing military build up
5. Anti-colonialism
6. End the invasion of Russia.
7. End the invasion of Belgium.
8. End the Prussian invasion of France.
9. Italy’s national borders must be respected. 
10. People of Austria-Hungarian Empire should have “the freest opportunity of autonomous development.”
11. End the invasion of Balkans, respect territorial integrity of Balkan nations.
12. Restore the sovereignty of Turkish portions of the Ottoman Empire, autonomy to others, free passage from Dardanelles.
13. A free and independent Poland with access to the sea.
14. Establish an association of all nations, big and small, respecting the sovereignty of each.

The Long Telegram from a U.S. diplomat in Moscow sent on February 22 in 1946 became the symbol of the Cold War grand strategy for the US. In his telegram to the US State Department, George Kennan states the following:

• Going back to Stalin, the Soviet Union has established a worldview that sees the international system as a competition between a socialist center and a capitalist center.
• They (the Soviets) will do everything to strengthen their power and weaken the strength and influence of the capitalist powers.
• Government involvement is necessary to “educate the public” about the Soviets, and explain the threats they pose on the American society.
• Other societies/nations should be made aware of the US model, and should be “urged” to develop political systems similar to the US.
• He concluded that if the US did not reach out to other nations to promote its political and socio-economic model, Russians would definitely promote theirs.

For decades, Kennan and Truman came to be known as the architects of the Containment doctrine.

The Reagan Presidency also coincided with massive economic crisis in the developing world. Hyperinflation, foreign currency shortages and capital flight were common across the Global South. The Reagan administration and the international financial institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) pushed the countries struggling with economic crisis to make structural changes. These countries had to abandon their prior economic development models (import substation industrialization -ISI) and switch to the free market model.

The Reagan administration and the international financial institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) pushed the countries struggling with economic crisis to make structural changes. These countries had to abandon their prior economic development models (import substation industrialization -ISI) and switch to the free market model. Also referred as neoliberalism, the new development model required:

• Less government involvement in economy and more goods, services, utilities, etc. provided by the private sector
• Privatization of previously government owned industries
• Deregulations of the markets, banking and finance sectors
• Floating exchange rates, convertibility
• Elimination of capital controls, welcoming foreign investment

President Clinton and his national security advisor Anthony Lake were the architects of the foreign policy doctrine that came to be known as “democratic enlargement.”

In his 1993 speech at the UN, President Clinton described the cornerstones of his doctrine as support for democracy and free markets. Clinton and his advisor Dr. Lake were eager to find a compelling new doctrine to replace the old-fashioned containment doctrine. They highlighted democracy and free markets as core American values. In Lake’s words, these two values complemented each other: “Both processes strengthen each other: democracy alone can produce justice, but not the material goods necessary for individuals to thrive; markets alone can expand wealth, but not that sense of justice without which civilized societies perish.”

The notorious terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 completely changed the focus of the US foreign policy.

The majority of the attackers in 9/11 were from Saudi Arabia and Egypt. Yet, the Bush administration started a war in Iraq in 2003, by claiming Iraq having Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs) as the cause of war. Therefore, these attacks completely changed the focus of the US foreign policy. 

Obama was able to win the Democratic nomination, by beating Senator Hillary Clinton in the Democratic primaries. However, once elected, Obama included Clinton in his cabinet as the Secretary of State, giving her the top position in charge of U.S. foreign policy. Hillary Clinton was among the most interventionist members during her tenure at the Senate. She had voted in favor of the Iraq war in 2003, whereas Senator Obama had voted against it. Clinton was a strong advocate of U.S. military interventions, including the NATO mission in Libya in 2011.

Along with Clinton, Obama also had Samantha Power in his immediate foreign policy team. Samantha Power was a scholar famous for her works on genocide. She was a strong advocate of use of military force in promoting global peace and humanitarian purposes.

President Trump was vocal about his highly unorthodox foreign policy choices during his election campaign. He frequently accused the NATO members as being “free riders”, implying that they were counting on the U.S. military and economic support for their own national security. President Trump openly asked all NATO members to increase their military spending.

Ballistic Missiles: Mechanisms used to deliver nuclear warheads. They can travel across continents, with a range of 5000 miles/8000 kilometers.

League of Nations: International organization created after the World War I, predecessor of the United Nations. Its architect was the US President Woodrow Wilson. However, the US Congress did not approve the treaty to join the League, therefore the US was never a member. This hampered the powers of the League of Nations.

NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement. Negotiated by George H. Bush administration, signed and implemented by President Bill Clinton in 1994. Free trade agreement between US, Canada and Mexico. Renegotiated and updated as USMCA under Trump administration.

National Security Advisor (NSA): President’s principal advisor on national security issues. It is important that the NSA acts as an “honest broker” of the national security policy process, and does not favor one agency over the other. The NSA manages the National Security Council (NSC) staff, chairs the principals committee, and coordinates and manages policymaking with the goal of ensuring effective policy development and implementation.

Sanctions: A tool of statecraft, frequently involving economic measures such as asset freezes and trade restrictions, or visa and travel restrictions. Used to exact a certain behavior or outcome from another party. The U.S. and EU sanctions against Russian companies and individuals that aim to encourage Russia to end its interference in Ukraine are an example.

Special Operations Forces: Elite U.S. military units, such as Navy Sea, Air, and Land (SEAL) Teams and Army Special Forces, grouped under U.S. Special Operations Command (SOCOM). They conduct specialized and often sensitive missions that include guerrilla warfare, counterterrorism raids, counterproliferation, and advanced reconnaissance.

Weapons of Mass Destruction: Weapons that differ from conventional weapons, due to their massive and indiscriminate potential to kill. Nuclear, chemical and biological weapons fall under this category.