AMERİKAN DIŞ POLİTİKASI - Deneme Sınavı - 2

The drop in hard currency from falling oil prices coupled with the mounting pressures of the war in Afghanistan and Reagan’s arms race strained the USSR to its breaking point. The new Soviet premier, Mikhail Gorbachev, was departure from the Soviet old guard, who had been dying off in rapid succession during the early 1980s. When Gorbachev came to power in 1985, he was young, dynamic and willing to experiment. Crucially, he recognized that reform was needed. He offered up “glasnost” (openness) and “perestroika” (restructuring). The Soviets needed to reduce its military costs. To the West, he was a man we could do business with.

The drop in hard currency from falling oil prices coupled with the mounting pressures of the war in Afghanistan and Reagan’s arms race strained the USSR to its breaking point. The new Soviet premier, Mikhail Gorbachev, was departure from the Soviet old guard, who had been dying off in rapid succession during the early 1980s. When Gorbachev came to power in 1985, he was young, dynamic and willing to experiment. Crucially, he recognized that reform was needed. He offered up “glasnost” (openness) and “perestroika” (restructuring). The Soviets needed to reduce its military costs. To the West, he was a man we could do business with. The two leaders met in October 1986 in Reykjavik. While the summit did not produce any breakthroughs, largely because of Reagan’s unwillingness to negotiate away SDI research, it did pave the way for the Washington Summit in December 1987. There the Intermediate Nuclear Force (INF) Treaty was signed, the only one of its kind eliminating an entire class of nuclear weapons (National Security Archive). At both summits, Gorbachev was willing to go much further than the Americans in eliminating nuclear weapons and sought genuine collaboration on ending the war in Afghanistan. For his part, Reagan pushed hard on human rights violations, as delineated by the Helsinki Accords.

Nixon and Kissinger bypassed the State Department and set their own foreign policy course. Their priorities were two: 1) disengage from Vietnam, but with honor; 2) reengage with China to exploit their tension with the Soviet Union to secure agreements both favorable to the United States. Twenty years earlier, Secretary of State Dean Acheson recognized the same opportunity, but the political climate created by Nixon, among others, made negotiations unimaginable. This is why Nixon shocked the world in February 1972 when he announced a visit to the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Only a Republican with his Cold War credentials could pull off such a diplomatic coup. For twenty years, the West failed to recognize Mao’s government, nor grant it a seat at the United Nations.

By the turn of 2000s, the United States was the sole super-power in the world as the Soviet Union was no longer a challenger. America’s supreme position in the world was mainly built on four dimensions: (1) the USA not only had the largest and most advanced economy within the global economy but it was also the driving force of globalization, (2) the USA was not only the sole superpower but it was also a hyperpower, (3) the USA was the only country with the high-tech military power within the globe and was, at the time ,“the leader in the revolution in military affairs”, and (4) the USA was a great example of not only a hard power but also a soft power as well. It was the disseminator of its popular culture throughout the world (Friedman 2015, p. 1). The United States was not only promoting its popular culture but also it was promoting its own values and ideas. Thus, the ideas that conquered the world were “peace, democracy and free markets (Kurth, 2007:150)” and the geography of this empire was partly built on military relations and partly on economic relations (Friedman 2015: 1).

Before delving into the consequences of the coming of the American Empire and in order to understand the conditions that lead to it in more detail, it is vital to understand the four perspectives on American Foreign Policy and the rise of neoconservatives. The global imperial project of America was “the outcome of a domestic political struggle.” We can identify four different American foreign policy traditions. These are: (1) Traditional Liberals (also widely known as the Jeffersonian tradition), (2) Traditional Conservatives (also widely known as the Jacksonian tradition), (3) Neoliberals (also widely known as the Wilsonian tradition), and (4) Neo-conservatives (also widely known as the Hamiltonian tradition). The first two traditions are usually addressed as the national perspectives due to their emphasis on the principle of national interest. They argue that the United States should be governed by its national interests, which are the “promotion and protection of the interests of Americans (Kurth, 2007: 155).” The central concern of the Traditional Liberals is that American domestic economy should be enhanced by domestic social reform rather than by engaging in foreign interventions that would disrupt economic prosperity. This tradition is best represented during the Carter administration. The central concern of the traditional conservatives is American national security. They emphasize that national security should be enhanced by national unity rather than engaging in foreign interventions, which are remote from American vital interests. This tradition is best represented during George H. W. Bush administration.

The Neoconservatives’ main concern is to eliminate all military or terror threats to American security and provide security of its allies (primarily Israel) while utilizing its military might to deter its enemies. It aims to eliminate threats such as rogue states, terrorist organizations or Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) and force regime changes in regions like Middle East through taking on the task of nation-building in the name of creating a safer world for democracy. Neoconservatives were the ones who promoted the pre-emptive military action (Welch et al., 2018: 2). This tradition is specifically represented by the George W. BushDick Cheney administration where they were able to enjoy a robust period of influence.

Traditional Liberals/ the Jeffersonian Tradition (The National Perspective) 

Central concern: American domestic economy enhanced by domestic social reform rather than engaging in foreign interventions that would disrupt economic prosperity.

National perspective: The US foreign policy should be governed by the principle of national interest which is the promotion and protection of the interests of the Americans.

Best represented by: Jimmy Carter administration

Traditional Conservatives/ the Jacksonian Tradition (The National Perspective)

Central concern: American national security enhanced by national unity rather than engaging in foreign interventions that are remote from American vital interests.

National perspective: The US foreign policy should be governed by the principle of national interest which is the promotion and protection of the interests of Americans.

Best represented by: George H. W. Bush

Neoliberals/the Wilsonian Tradition (the Global Perspective)

Global perspective: The US as a unique power within the global era.

Central Concern: The US as the leader in the grand project of globalization (progressive elimination of borders and liberalization of societies). In other words; creating liberal democracies, free markets and democratic peace.

Best represented by: Clinton administration

Neo Conservatives/the Hamiltonian Tradition (the Global perspective)

Global perspective: The US as a unique power within the global era.

Central concern: American role in the global security. US as the leader in a grand project to eliminate military or terror threats to the security of America and its allies (primarily Israel). Elimination of such threats as rogue states, terrorist organizations and WMD.

Partially represented by: Reagan administration (Reagan Doctrine: promoted anti-communist guerilla movements against Marxist regimes) • Best represented by: George W. Bush (Bush Doctrine: particularly in regard to its foreign policy towards ME and its support of Israel and war in Iraq)

The tenets of neoconservative foreign policy thought

• America should preserve its military dominance in the post-Cold War world. • Foreign Policy should be considered as a moral clarity between the forces of good (superiority of democracy) and evil and strong military should be advocated.

• America should not only leverage its military power, but it should also be eager to utilize its military force to pursue its interests.

• International institutions should not be taken so seriously.

Traditional Liberals/ the Jeffersonian Tradition (The National Perspective)

Central concern: American domestic economy enhanced by domestic social reform rather than engaging in foreign interventions that would disrupt economic prosperity.

National perspective: The US foreign policy should be governed by the principle of national interest which is the promotion and protection of the interests of the Americans.

Best represented by: Jimmy Carter administration

Neo Conservatives/the Hamiltonian Tradition (the Global perspective) 

Global perspective: The US as a unique power within the global era.

Central concern: American role in the global security. US as the leader in a grand project to eliminate military or terror threats to the security of America and its allies (primarily Israel). Elimination of such threats as rogue states, terrorist organizations and WMD.

Partially represented by: Reagan administration (Reagan Doctrine: promoted anti-communist guerilla movements against Marxist regimes) • Best represented by: George W. Bush (Bush Doctrine: particularly in regard to its foreign policy towards ME and its support of Israel and war in Iraq)

American exceptionalism refers to the history of the U.S. as different from other nations that is based on liberty, egalitarianism, and laissez faire. It also refers to the idea that the US has a unique mission to defend and spread these values in the world. The correct answer is C

Driven by the concerns at home, Clinton’s presidential campaign focused on economy
and domestic politics. The correct answer is C

Haiti had its first democratic elections in 1990. The correct answer is B

While the Dayton Accords ended the Bosnianc War, peace at the Balkan Peninsula did not last long. The correct answer is A

The secret talks between Israel and the PLO started under Norwegian auspices in 1993. The correct answer is A

President Clinton also actively worked to end the conflict in Northern Ireland. The correct answer is C

Geo-economics is the combination of international economic, political and geographical factors in influencing a country and its policies. The correct answer is B